Tree    Station  on  upper  Potomac. 


Signal   Station  at  Masthead. 

TJ.  S.  Steamer  Richmond.. 


Station  in  front  of  Washington.    Operations  against  Richmond. 

130ftligK. 


U.S.A. 


MANUAL  OF  SIGNALS: 


FOR  THE  USE   OF 


SIGNAL  OFFICERS  IN  THE  FIELD, 


AND   FOR 


MILITARY  AND   NAVAL   STUDENTS,  MILITARY 

SCHOOLS,  ETC. 


A    NEW    EDITION, 

ENLARGED    AND    ILLUSTRATED. 


BY 

BT.  BRIG.  GENL.  ALBERT  J.  MYER, 

w 

CHIEF   SIGNAL   OFFICER   OF   THE   ARMY,    COLONEL   OF   THE    SIGNAL   COUPS 
DURING    THE    WAR   OF   THE   REBELLION. 


NEW  YORK: 
D.  VAX   XOSTRAND,  192   BROADWAY. 

1868. 


Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  186S, 

By  ALBERT  J.  MYER, 

In  the  Clerk's  Office  of  the  District  Court  of  the  United  States  for  the 
Southern  District  of  New  York. 


Russells'  Ameiinin  Steam  Printing  House. 
28,  30  &  32  Ceulro  St.,  N.  Y. 


Little,  Rennte  &  Co., 

Stekeotypeks. 


A) 

/■■ 


TO    THE 


OFFICERS   OF  THE  ARMY  AND  NAVY 


THE    UNITED    STATES, 


THIS    WORK 


IS   RESPECTFULLY   INSCRIBED. 


M5io9'?a 


PREFACE. 


This  work  was,  for  its  first  edition,  in  great  part 
hastily  prepared,  printed  upon  an  office  press,  and  issued 
to  the  officers  of*  the  Signal  Corps  of  the  Army  then 
serving  constantly  in  the  field  in  the  midst  of  the  war 
of  the  Rebellion.  It  was  intended,  at  the  time,  for  their 
instruction  only,  and  was  rendered  incomplete  by  official 
embarrassments  and  the  pressure  of  other  duties.  The 
author  is  induced  to  its  enlargement  and  republication 
now  by  varied  reasons.  The  actions  of  the  late  war,  in 
which  victory  or  defeat  has  sometimes  hung  upon  the 
transmission  of  a  signalled  message,  have  rendered  it 
certain  that  military  signals  will  be  used  in  the  future 
military  and  naval  operations  of  our  arms.  They  will 
be  employed  in  the  continued  Indian  warfares  in  the 
Interior ;  and  it  is  probable  some  knowledge  of  tele- 
graphic duty  will  be  required  of  the  officers  of  both  the 
land  and  naval  services.  The  perfection  to  which  these 
duties  can  be  brought,  by  careful  study,  experiment, 
and  practice,  can  be  contemplated  yet  in  imagination 
only.  It  has  been  aimed  to  furnish  those  to  serve  espe- 
cially upon  such  duties,  whether  serving  as  in  a  corps  or 
as  detached,  such    plain    and    compendious   instructions  as 


G  PKEFACE. 

will  enable  them  to  do  the  duties  well.  It  has  been 
another  object  of  the  Author  to  provide  a  work  of  such 
a  character  that  it  may  give  to  any  who  peruse  it  an 
idea  of  what  it  is  possible  to  effect  by  signals,  and  how 
it  is  proposed  to  effect  it;  and,  in  fine,  a  conception  of 
the  services  planned  for  a  property  equipped  Signal  Corps, 
and  the  mode  in  which  they  are  to  be  rendered.  It  is 
necessary  for  the  successful  use  of  such  organizations, 
and  for  the  right  discharge  of  any  signal  duty,  that  those 
officers  whose  rank  entitles  them  to  frequent  and  large 
command  should  have  a  knowledge  —  such  at  least  as 
they  can  gain  by  reading  —  of  the  service  of  which  they 
may  at  any  moment  need  to  avail  themselves.  And  it 
has  been  a  natural  wish  on  the  part  of  the  Author,  that 
those  with  whom  he  has  been  associated  may  be  con- 
vinced, by  their  own  knowledge,  that  the  plans  for  this 
branch  of  service  have  been  carefully  considered  and  are 
practicable. 

Of  the  great,  good  results  to  be  hoped  from  a  popular 
and  thorough  knowledge  of  the  subjects  of  the  book, 
subjects  hitherto  so  little  treated,  that  the  Author  knows 
of  no  extended  work  relating  to  them,  he  can  here  make 
mention  only.  The  character  of  the  possible  advantages 
must  be  judged  after  some  perusal  of  the  volume. 

In  preparing  the  work,  the  Author  has  availed  himself 
of  the  information  he  has  gained  in  some  years  of  study, 
experiment,  and  active  service.  He  has  embodied  in  it 
whatever  he  has  thought  might  be  of  value  to  the  student. 


PREFACE.  7 

In  the  revision  and  modification  <>f  plans  which  have 
come  under  his  consideration,  it  has  been  difficult  some- 
times to  credit  exactly  the  labors  of  those  who  have 
treated  of  them;  but  if  mention  of  any  has  been  omitted, 
it  has  been  through  inadvertence.  The  Author  claims  for 
himself  little  originality  or  invention,  other  than  would 
perhaps  have  come  to  any  one  who  might  have  devoted 
an  equal  amount  of  time  and  labor  to  the  subject. 


CONTEXTS. 


[See  Index,  page  413.] 

paoi 

General  Observations  pertaining  to  Signals Lo 

Of  Recording  ditto IT 

Roles  of  Permutations,  Combinations,  Arrangements,  etc 21 

Table  of  Reference  for  Signals,  from  one  to  nine  elements,  etc  ...  34 

Alphabetic  Elementary  Codes  _. 36 

Message  Codes  of  Signals  I - 

Examples  of  Codes I;! 

Examples  of  Naval  Code 47 

Description  of  IT.  S.  Naval  Codes  of  Signals -1!) 

Methods  of  Symbolizing  Signal  Numbers  (Navy)    52 

Navy  Colored  Signals 52 

General  Applications 56 

Field  Signals  by  One  Element 65 

Field  Signals  by  Two  Elements  : 

General  Service  Code  (arrangement  of  two  elements)— Instruc- 
tions for  Using  the  Code— Day  Signals  :  Motions  of  Flags— To 
send  a  Message — Ordering  Signals— Recording  ditto— Verti- 
cal Motions— Horizontal  ditto— Night  Signals— Ditto  by  Verti- 
cal Motions — Ditto  by  Horizontal  ditto 6?  ^7 

Transient  Signals:  by  Flashes— by  Occupations— by  Sound— Com- 
plicating Signals— Code  of  Two  Elements  (arrangements  of 

two  symbols) 87-9a 

Field  Signals  by  Three  Elements  : 

Alphabet  of  Three  Elements  (an  arrangemenl  of  three  sym- 
bols)—Instructions  for  using  Code— Day  Signals:    Flags  in 
Motion— Night  Signals— Day  Signals:    Motions  of  Disks 
Night  Signals— Signals  by  Flashes  and  Occultation — Ditto 
by  Sound    96-107 


10  CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

Field  Signals  by  Four  Elements  : 

Alphabet  of  Four  Elements  for  Flags  (an  arrangement  of  four 
symbols)— Code  Signals— Day  ditto :  Motions  of  Flags— Posi- 
tion of  Disks— Night  Signals— Alphabet  of  Four  Elements 
(an  arrangement  of  four  symbols) — Day  Signals — Night  ditto 
—General  Applications 107-115 

Field  Signals  by  Five  Elements  : 

Alphabet  of  Five  Elements  (an  arrangement  of  five  symbols) 
— Day  Signals  by  Motions  and  Positions — Night  Signals- 
Signals  by  Flashes  and  Occultations — Ditto  by  Sound — Sys- 
tem of  Polybius 116-126 

Field  Signals  by  Six  Elements  : 

Alphabet  of  Six  Elements  (an  arrangement  of  six  symbols)— 
Code  Signals— Instructions  for  Using  ditto— Day  Signals  by 
Positions  and  Motions— Night  Signals— Signals  by  Flashes 
and  Occultations— Ditto  by  Sound 126-137 

Field  Signals  by  Seven  Elements  : 

Alphabet  of  Seven  Elements  (an  arrangement  of  seven  sym- 
bols)—Day  and  Night  Signals 138,  139 

Field  Signals  by  Eight  Elements : 

Alphabet  of  Eight  Elements  (an  arrangement  of  eight  sym- 
bols)—Day  and  Night  Signals 140, 141 

Field  Signals  by  Nine  Elements : 

Alphabet  of  Nine  Elements  (an  arrangement  of  nine  sjnubols) 
—Day  and  Night  Signals 142, 143 

Field  Siguals  by  Ten  Elements : 

Alphabet  of  Ten  Elements  (an  arrangement  of  ten  sym- 
bols)    144 

General  Service  Homographic  Code — nomographic  Alphabet — 
Conventional  Signals — Homographic  Night  Signals — Return- 
ing or  Repeating  Homographic  Signals — Application  to  Sig- 
nal Books — Orders  in  Homographic  Signals — Recording  Ho- 
mographic ditto — Applications — Signals  by  Flashes  and  Occul- 
tations— To  Rapidly  Memorize  a  Code 144-1 64 

Chronosemic  Signals : 

Preliminary  Explanations— Figure  Symbols — Table  of  Cor- 
responding Intervals — Signal  Numbers — Auxiliary  or  Special 
Signals — Table  of  Special  Signals — Signal  Apparatus— Time- 
keeping ditto— Special  Time-keeping  ditto — Sign-making  Ap- 


CONTENTS.  11 

r  kGI 

paratus — Special   ditto— Forms  of   Signal    Records — Signal 

Record 1 64-179 

To  open  Communication    by   Signals  without  a  Preconcerted 

Code L80-189 

Description  of  Standard  Signal  Equipment 189-192 

Signal  1  )isks 193 

Semaphores 193 

Semaphore-Telegraph  (Universal)— Table  of  Signs  or  Combina- 
tions  195-198 

Flags  on  Halyards 198 

Flags  in  Motion 200 

Sizes  of  Flags  and  length  of  Stall* 201 

Lanterns   203 

Torches 204 

Candle-bombs 207 

Pulls  and  Flashes 209 

Matches 211 

The  use  of  Rockets  for  Signals 211 

Of  Firing  Rockets 215 

Composition  Fires : 

Coston's  Composition  Telegraphic  Night  Signals — Example 

of  a  Code 216-221 

Message  Signals 222 

Care  of  Signal  Apparatus 222 

Transportation  of  Apparatus  225 

Telescopes  and  their  uses 228 

Scale  Glasses 235 

Pocket  Compasses 237 

Prismatic  Compass 238 

Instructions  in  Signalling 230 

Selecting,  Establishing,  and  Working  Stations  in  the  Field  : 

Position  of  Signalmen — Working — To  Locate  Stations — Es- 
tablishing Stations — Repeating  Stations 243-272 

Complicating  Signals 272 

Messages  and  Messengers 275 

Cryptograms   '-' ;,; 

Signalling  in  Cipher 280 

Rules  and  Explanations  for  use  of  Signal  Disks: 

1.  Explanation  of  Disk— 2.  To  make  Signals— 3.  The  Ad- 


12  CONTENTS. 


PACK 


jnstment   Letter — 4.  To  send  a  Message  in  Cipher — 5.  To 
Change  the  Cipher  when  sending  Message — 6.    Record — 

7.  Words 289-297 

Enciphering  certain  Words  only  of  a  Message 298 

Route  Cipher 311 

Modes  and  Curiosities  of  Cipher 323 

Flying  or  Field  Telegraphs 336 

General  Service  of  the  Signal  Corps  : 

Cavalry  Raids — Observations  and  Reconnoissances 347-370 

Mapping : 

Maps  and  Sketches  from  Information , 370-373 

Reports : 

Reports  from  Information — Transmission  of  Reports. . .  .373-381 

Origin  and  General  Use  of  Signals 382 

General  Use  of  Signals 399 


DESCRIPTIONS  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS. 


Plates 

I. — Examples   of  Permutations,  Combinations,   and   Arrange- 
ments. 
II. — Naval  Signal  Flags;  Signal  Lights. 
III. — Naval  Pendants  and  Repeaters;  Coston  Lights. 
IV. — Significations  by  Positions  and  Motions. 
V. — Signals  by  Colors,  Forms,  Positions  of  Forms. 
VI.— (General    Service    Code    of   Two    Elements):    Signals    by 
Motions — Men  and  Flags  ;   Illustrations  of  the  Motions 
of  the  Flags. 
VII. — (General    Service    Code):    Signals   by   Motions— Men    and 
Flags  ;  Illustrations  of  the  Motions  of  the  Flags. 
VIII.— (General  Service  Code):    Signal  Apparatus;    Signal  Balls 
worked  above  a  Deck  or  Roof;  Mode  of  Signalling  by 
Motions  of  Flags  on  Halyards. 
IX. — Apparatus  applied  to  Monitors,  Ships,  Houses,  Towers. 
X. — Night  Signals — Men,  Flags,  and  Torches  in  Position. 
XI. — (General   Service  Code) :    Night   Signals  by  Horizontal   or 
Vertical  Motions;   Signals  with  Lanterns  upon  Frames, 
and  with  Lanterns  held  in  the  Hand. 
XII.— (Code  of  Three  Elements) :  Day  and  Night  Signals ;  Signals 

by  Motions  and  Positions. 
XIII.— (Code  of  Four  Elements):  Day  Signals;  Signals  by  Motions. 
XIV.— (Code  of  Four  Elements):   Day  Signals;    Signals  by  Posi- 
tions, Common  Articles  displayed  as  Signal-. 
XV.— (Code  of  Five  Elements):  Day  and  Night  Signals;  Signals 
with  Disks,  Lanterns,  Muskets,  and  Semaphore  of  Poly- 
bius. 
XVI. — (Code  of  Six  Elements) :  Day  and  Night  Signals  with  Disks, 
Flashes,   Lanterns,   Men,   Muskets,  Torches;   Signals  by 
Positions. 


14  DESCRIPTIONS   OF   ILLUSTRATIONS. 

Plates 

XVII. — General  Service   Homographic   Signals.     (Code  of  Ten 

Elements) :  The  Digits  indicated  by  Positions. 
XVIII.— (Code   of   Ten   Elements):    Night    Signals— Firebrands, 
Flashes,  Lanterns.     Day  Signals — with  Disks;  Sema- 
phores constructed  with  Pieces  of  Board;  Semaphores 
of  Canes   and   Disks  ;    Semaphoric   Signals — Man   in 
Tree. 
XIX. — Signal  Equipments — Regulation  Set. 
XX. — Double  Disks,  in  Motion  and  in  Position  ;  Signals  by  Lan- 
terns on  Shelves;  Signal  Flash  and  Magic  Lanterns. 
XXI.— Flags  on  Halyards. 
XXII. — Signal  Mortars  ;   Shells  ;   Pack-animal ;   Arrangements  of 
Rockets  for  Chronosemic  Signals ;  Man  firing  Rockets 
from  Hand.     Man  with  Signal  Kit. 
XXIII. — Signal  Pistols ;   Lights ;   Composition  Fires ;   Signal  Cart- 
ridge-box.   Binocular  Glass  and  Case ;  Telescopes  and 
Straps ;    Wand   for   Practice ;    Men  Practising  with 
Wands. 
XXIV. — Transportation  of  Apparatus ;  Prismatic  and  Pocket  Com- 
passes. 
XXV. — Object  viewed  through  Scale  Glass;  Telescopes;  Tele- 
scope Rests;  Telescopes  in  Rest;  Plan  of  Permanent 
Signal  Station  or  Tower. 
XXVI.— Signal  Cipher  Disks. 

XXVII.— Cryptographic   Disks;     Cipher   Reel;     Cipher   Tablets; 
Combination  Disks;   Disks  cut  from  Paper;    Vertical 
Section. 
XXVIII.— Signal  Corps  Telegraph — Setting  up  Wire;   Operator  at 
Work  ;  Signal  Station  at  Night. 
XXIX. — Field   Telegraph   and  Communicating   Signal   Station — 
Concentration  of  Reports  from  different  Signal  Stations 
at  the  Telegraphic  Station. 
XXX. — Illustration  of  Action  of  Land  and  Naval  Forces  com- 
bined by  Signal ;  Field  Telegraph  and  Communicating 
Signal  Stations  on  Ship  and  on  Shore. 


MANUAL  OF  SIGNALS. 


Such  limited  attention  has  been  paid  to  Signals  and  Tele- 
graphy that,  except  among  experts,  there  is  little  general 
information  on  the  subject.  The  secrecy  which  is  commonly 
preserved,  and  necessarily,  in  reference  to  the  meanings  of 
signals,  made  in  the  Land  and  Naval  services,  has  led  to  an 
impression,  that  the  subject  involves  something  of  mystery. 
There  can  be  nothing  easier  of  comprehension,  than  the  prin- 
ciples upon  which  all  signals  are  devised  ;  or  more  simple, 
than  the  workings  of  the  few  rules  which  are  applied  to 
tlum. 

A  Sign  or  Signal  is  any  thing,  or  sound,  or  act,  or  indica- 
tion by  which  to  excite  attention  or  convey  a  meaning.  A 
stroke  of  a  clock-bell  is  a  sisrnal.  Letters  and  characters  are 
signals.     To  point  the  finger  at  any  object  is  a  signal. 

Signals  are  of  two  kinds — transient  a,ndpermam  nt.  They 
are  transient  when  each  sign  disappears  as  soon  as  it  has 
Inch  completed;  as  in  signals  by  Motions  or  by  Sounds. 
They  arc  permanent  when  the  signs  are  long  in  view  ;  as 
when  flags  are  kept  hoisted  to  be  read;  or  the  symbols 
are  written  on  paper;  or  a  signal  is  made  by  placing  a  thing 
in  a  fixed  position,  and  so  retaining  it — as  the  arm  raised 
above  the  head. 

The  principle  upon  which  all  systems  of  signals  are  formed, 
is  this:    that,  luning  a  certain  number  of  arbitrary,  simple 


16  MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS. 

signs,  sounds,  things,  colors,  or  indications,  each  distin- 
guishable from  the  other,  these  are  made  to  appear  joined 
together  in  any  arrangements  or  combinations  which  are 
possible  and  expedient,  to  form  other  or  different  signals  to 
any  extent  required.  We  wish,  for  example,  to  make  a 
large  number  of  signals — that  is,  a  large  number  of  signs  or 
indications — which,  when  they  are  exhibited,  in  any  way, 
to  an  observer,  and  recognized,  shall  each  signify  a  certain 
meaning.  We  take  any  few  different  and  simple  known 
signs,  sounds,  motions,  or  indications,  which  we  can  easily 
make,  and  we  join  them  together,  twos  or  threes,  or  more 
at  a  time,  making  one  after  another,  into  many  and  different 
and  more  complex  signs  or  arrangements.  Each  of  these 
new  signs  becomes,  when  a  meaning  is  given  to'  it,  a  signal. 
We  can  increase  the  number  of  such  signals  to  any  limit,  by 
continuing  to  join  together  the  known  signals  in  greater  num- 
bers, or  in  new  arrangements.  Any  thing  in  existence,  of 
which  we  take  cognizance,  or  to  which  we  can,  through  any 
sensation,  direct  the  attention  of  others,  can  be  used  as  a 
signal.  For  convenience  of  naming,  the  known  shnis  or 
signals  with  which  we  commence,  are  called  single  ov  pri- 
mary signals,  or  elemental-;/  signals.  The  new  signs  made 
by  joining  these  elementary  signs  together,  are  called  the 
combinations  or  combination  signals.  The  elementary  signs 
may  be  disposed,  any  number  of  them  being  used  at  a  time, 
or  any  number  of  repetitions  of  any  one  of  them,  or  repeti- 
tions of  any  one  or  more  of  them  being  joined,  in  very 
numerous  and  varied  arrangements.  The  several  siuns 
exhibited  together  in  one  arrangement,  then  become  one 
signal  for  any  given  meaning.  This  signal,  thus  made,  is 
a  signal  by  combination.  It  consists  of  several  signals 
combined  to  make  one. 

The  number  of  different  sorts  or  kinds  of  signs  or  indica- 
tions used,  in  making  a  combination  signal,  is  called  the 
number  of  elements  of  the  signal.     The  number  of  sio-ns,  of 


MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS.  17 

all  kinds,  actually  used  in  one  completed  signal,  is  the  num- 
ber of  elementary  signals  in  that  signal.  A  combination  sig- 
nal may  be  only  an  elementary  signal  repeated  several  times; 
or  it  may  be  repetitions  of  one  elementary  signal  joined  to 
others.  In  the  signal  "  1131"  there  are  two  sorts  of  signals — 
viz.,  those  indicated  by  the  symbols  "  1,"  and  those  indicated 
by  the  symbols  "  3."  The  signal  is  thus  of  two  elements. 
There  are  four  signals  taken  together  to  make  it.  The 
number  of  elementary  signals  is  four.  In  "  1132"  there  are 
three  elements  and  four  primary  signals.  In  " 222"  there 
are  one  element  and  three  signals. 

All  systematized  signals, — that  is,  signals  formed  under 
rules — and  signals  must  be  systematized,  or  formed  under 
rules,  if  any  great  number  of  them  are  to  be  used, — are  based 
on  the  principles  above  explained  :  that  the  elementary  sig- 
nals of  any  system  being  given,  all  signals  of  that  system 
are  made  by  combinations  of  those  elementary  signals. 
This  principle  is  identical,  in  its  operation,  with  that  by 
which  the  separate  letters — the  elementary  signals  or  sym- 
bols of  language — form,  by  their  combinations,  the  many 
single  words  of  that  language;  or  the  numerical  digits — the 
elementary  signals  or  symbols  of  numbers — designate,  by 
their  arrangements,  the  infinity  of  numbers  they  are  capable 
of  expressing.  In  its  application  to  telegraphic  signals,  this 
principle  goes  back  to  a  further  degree,  and  as  in  one  word 
or  expression  of  a  number  there  are  several  characters,  the 
elements  which  go  to  make  up  its  unity,  so  in  telegraphing 
each  letter  may  often  be  designated  by  elementary  signals, 
which,  several  in  number,  must  join  to  indicate  that  single 
character. 

Of  Recording  Signals. 


The  recording  of  signals,  is  the  writing  them  down.  The 
notation  of  the  characters  standing  for  signals,  is  similar  to 
that  of  any  other  characters  in  writing.     Each  elementary 


18  MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS. 

signal  is  designated  by  any  given  character,  number,  or 
mark.  The  characters  indicating  the  different  elementary 
signals,  joined  in  each  combination  signal,  are  written  to- 
gether, and  by  their  kinds,  number,  and  order  of  sequence, 
show  the  kinds,  number,  and  sequences  of  the  elementary 
signals  which  are  used  in  that  combination.  Signals  are  thus 
written  precisely  as  words  are  written.  As  in  the  written 
word  are  shown  the  letters — the  elements  of  language  which 
go  to  make  up  that  word,  their  number,  and  the  order  in 
which  they  are  spoken  or  exhibited  to  produce  that  word- 
so  the  record  of  a  signal  shows  how  many  sorts  or  kinds  of 
signs  or  indications  are  used  to  make  the  signal  (the  num- 
ber of  elements) ;  how  many  single  signs  (elementary  sig- 
nals) are  combined  to  make  it ;  and  the  order  in  which 
each  must  be  exhibited,  when  all  are  joined  together  in  dis- 
playing the  completed  signal. 

We  take,  for  example,  any  three  kinds  of  known  signs, 
motions,  or  colors,  which  we  propose  to  use  as  the  elements 
on  which  to  base  a  system  of  signals.  We  name  these  ele- 
ments First,  Second,  and  Third.  We  designate  each  ele- 
mentary signal — that  is,  each  of  the  three  different  signs,  or 
each  of  the  three  different  motions,  or  each  of  the  three  dif- 
ferent colors — by  figures,  as  1  and  2  and  3  ;  or  by  letters,  as 
a  and  b  and  c  ;  or  by  the  letters  w  g  r ;  or  we  designate  them 
by  any  other  three  marks,  or  in  any  arbitrary  manner. 

If  now  we  wish  to  show,  writing  the  signals  to  be  read 
by  others,  or  observing  and  noting  them  down  for  our  own 
reference,  that  the  first  and  third  motions  are  made  to- 
gether, one  after  the  other,  to  make  a  signal ;  or,  that  the 
first  and  third  colors  are  to  be  so  shown  as  to  indicate  that 
one  follows  the  other  in  a  signal — that  is,  that  in  the  given 
signal  there  are  two  elementary  signs,  and  that  the  first  is 
followed  by  the  third — we  write  "  13,"  or  "  w  g,"  or  "a  c." 
If  using  motions,  the  third  motion  is  to  be  noted  as  made, 
and  followed  by  the  first  motion,  and  that  again  by  the  third 


MANUAL   OF  SIGNALS.  I'.t 

motion,  repeated,  to  make  a  signal;  or,  using  colors,  the 
color  green  is  shown  followed  by  the  white,  and  thai  by  the 

green  again  as  a  signal — thai  is,  if  the  signal  is  to  lie  the 
third  elementary  sign,  followed  by  the  first  elementary  sign, 
followed  by  the  third  elementary  sign  again  repeated ;  or, 
more  briefly,  a  third  element  followed  by  a  first  element, 
followed  by  a  third  element,  we  write  "  313,"  or  "c  a  c,"  or 
"gw  g."  If  a  "third  motion"  is  made  three  times,  in  close 
succession,  or  three  green  colors  are  shown,  one  after  the 
other,  as  the  signal — that  is,  if  the  signal  is  a  third  element 
thrice  repeated — we  write  "  333,"  or  u  g  g  g,"  "c  c  c,"  etc. 
If  still  using  in  no  signal  more  than  three  different  elements 
or  kinds  of  elementary  signals,  a  combination  signal  is  made 
to  consist  of  four  elementary  signals,  as  using  three  kinds  of 
motions,  four  distinct  motions  are  to  be  made  together,  one 
after  the  other,  as  a  signal ; — for  instance,  a  "  third  motion" 
followed  by  a  "second  motion,"  this  followed  by  a  "first 
motion,"  and  this  by  a  "  third  motion"  again,  repeated  ;  or, 
using  three  kinds  of  colors,  four  colors  are  shown  together 
as  a  signal,  as  the  green  followed  by  the  red,  followed  by 
the  white,  and  this  by  green  again — that  is,  the  signal  is  a 
third  element,  followed  by  a  second,  followed  by  a  first, 
followed  by  a  third — it  is  written  "  3213,"  or  "g  r  w  g," 
or  "c  b  a  c."  If  the  signal  is  to  be  a  first  element  shown 
three  times  in  succession,  it  is  written  "  111,"  or  "  w  w  w," 
or  "  a  a  a,"  etc.  If  the  signal  is  to  be  two  first  elements 
followed  by  two  second  elements,  as  two  first  motions  and 
two  second  motions  made  together,  or  two  white  colors  and 
two  red  colors  shown  together,  it  is  written  "1122,"  or 
"a  ab  b,"  or  "  w  w  it."  At  the  end  of  the  record  of  each 
completed  signal,  a  period  is  marked  upon  the  paper,  or  a 
space  is  left  to  separate  it  from  the  records  of  other  signals, 
precisely  as  spaces  are  made  between  written  words  to  dis- 
tinguish each  from  the  other. 

The  number  of  kiuds  of  characters  or  symbols  appearing 


20  MANUAL   OF    SIGNALS. 

iii  the  written  record  of  a  signal,  shows  how  many  sorts  or 
kinds  of  signs  or  indications  are  used  in  making  that  signal — 
i.  e.,  the  number  of  elements.  This  is  called  the  elementary 
number  of  the  signal.  In  the  signal  "  1231,"  there  are  three 
kinds  of  characters.  The  elementary  number  of  this  signal 
is  "  three."  It  is  a  signal  of  three  elements.  In  the  signal 
"  121,"  there  are  two  kinds  of  characters.  The  elementary 
number  of  the  signal,  is  "two."  It  is  a  signal  of  two  ele- 
ments. The  elementary  number  of  the  signal  "  1211,"  is 
"  two."  The  elementary  number  of  the  signal  "  2,"  is  "  one." 
The  elementary  number  of  the  signal  "  1 11,"  is  "  one."  The 
elementary  number  of  the  signal  "  11,"  is  "one."  The  ele- 
mentary number  of  the  signal  "  13,"  is  "two." 

The  number  of  characters  in  the  written  record  of  a  signal, 
shows  how  many  single  or  elementary  signs  or  indications, 
of  all  kinds,  are  made  combined  to  make  that  signal.  This 
is  called  the  combination  number  of  the  signal.  To  make 
the  combination  signal  "1231,"  four  single  signals  are 
joined.  The  combination  number  of  the  signal  is  "four." 
To  make  the  signal  "121,"  three  single  signals  are  com- 
bined. The  combination  number  of  this  signal  is  "  three." 
The  combination  number  of  the  signal  "  111,"  is  "  three." 
Of  the  signal  "  121,"  it  is  "  three."     Of  "  13,"  it  is  "  two." 

Each  elementary  or  single  signal,  appearing  in  a  combina- 
tion signal,  and  consequently  each  character,  appearing  in 
the  written  record  of  a  signal,  is  numbered  as  and  called  a 
place.  Thus,  the  signal  "  1231,"  is  a  signal  of  four  places. 
The  signal  "111,"  is  a  signal  of  three  places.  The  signal 
"  132,"  is  a  signal  of  three  places.  The  signal  "  2,"  is  a  sig- 
nal of  one  place. 

A  Class  of  signals  is  all  of  those  signals  to  make  which 
the  same  number  of  sio-ns  must  be  used.  All  signals  of  the 
same  number  of  places,  are  signals  of  the  same  class.  Thus, 
the  signals  "121,"  "  b  b  c,"  "  333,"  "  w  r  g,  "  123,"  are  all 
signals  of  three  places.     They  are  signals  of  the  same  class. 


MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS.  21 

The  signals  "  12,"  "31,"  "33,"  "  11,"  are  all  signals  of  two 
places.     They  are  of  the  same  class. 

Classes  of  signals  are  named  from  the  number  <»!'  places  in 
each  class.  Thus,  single  signals,  or  signals  of  one  place,  as 
"  2,"  "  3,"  etc.,  are  signals  of  the  first  class.  Signals  of  two 
places,  as  "a  a,"  "  11,"  etc.,  are  signals  of  the  second  class. 
Signals  of  three  places,  as  "  123,"  "  111,"  "a  a  h,"  etc.,  are 
signals  of  the  third  class;  and  so  on. 

A  Codt  of  signals  is  any  number  of  signals  arranged  and 
agreed  upon,  each  having  assigned  to  it  its  meaning.  Codes 
of  signals  arc  named  from  the  number  of  elements  used  in 
making  those  signals  which  appear  in  the  code,  or  from  the 
number  of  different  kinds  of  symbols  which  appear  in  the 
record:  as  codes  of  two  elements,  of  three  elements ;  and 
so  on. 


The   Rules   of  Permutations,  Combinations,  and 
Arrangements,  as  Applied  to  Signals. 

The  mathematical  rules  for  Permutations,  Combinations, 
and  Arrangements,  by  which  any  number  of  things,  char- 
acters, signs,  or  symbols  of  any  kind,  being  given,  there 
are  known  the  number  and  qualities  of  all  the  changes,  com- 
binations, and  arrangements  in  which  they  can  be  placed 
together,  apply  equally,  of  course,  to  the  changes,  combina- 
tions, and  arrangements  which  can  be  made  with  those 
characters,  things,  or  signs,  when  used  as  signals;  for,  to 
make  signals,  is  only  to  display  the  different  elementaries 
given,  in  the  different  changes,  combinations,  and  arrange- 
ments in  which  they  can  be  put,  giving  to  each  display  a 
separate  meaning.  The  study  of  the  applications  of  these 
rules  to  the  formation  of  signals  is  interesting.  The  compre- 
hension of  the  principles  upon  which  signals  are  systema- 
tized under  them  makes  clear  the   theories   of  signalling, 


22  MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS. 

and  enables  us  to  trace  the  bases  upon  which  all  plans  of 
signals  must  be  formed. 


The  Equation  of  Permutations  furnishes  the  formula  by 
which  any  number  of  characters  or  things  being  given,  there 
is  known  in  how  many  different  changes  these  characters  or 
things  can  be  arranged,  having,  in  every  arrangement,  all 
the  characters  or  things  given,  and  no  one  of  the  characters 
or  things  to  appear  more  than  once  in  any  arrangement. 
The  Equation  of  Permutations  is  as  follows : 

Let  N  =  number  of  changes  to  be  sought. 
n  =  number  of  things  or  symbols. 
Then  X=1X2X3****  Xn=answer. 

Or  the  number  of  changes  which  can  be  made,  is  equal  to 
a  series  of  numbers  from  one  up  to  the  given  number  (of 
things)  multiplied  continually  together,  the  last  product 
being  the  answer  required. 

Application. — Any  certain  number  of  things,  signs,  or 
indications,  of  which  our  senses  can  take  cognizance,  being 
taken  as  elementary  signals  or  symbols,  to  find  how  many 
signals  can  be  made,  displaying  all  the  elementary  signals 
each  time,  and  each  time  in  a  different  arrangement,  no 
elementary  signal  to  appear  more  than  once  in  any  one 
arrangement — 

Rule. — Designate  all  the  elementary  signals  given,  by 
numbers,  each  in  a  regular  series,  as  1,2,  3,  4, 5,  and  so  on,  up 
to  the  given  number.  Multiply  all  of  the  series  of  numbers 
up  to  the  given  number  continually  together,  and  the  last 
product  will  be  the  answer  required. 

If  there  are  six:  things  given,  in  how  many  changes  can 
they  be  arranged,  using  all  of  the  six  in  each  change,  and 
having  six  places  in  every  change  ? 


MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS.  2,6 

Number  of  changes  =  1  X  -  X  3  X  4  x  5  X  o  =  720. 

If  five  things  are  given  ? 

Number  of  changes  =  1  X  -  X  3X4X5  =  120. 

If  three  things  are  given  ? 

Number  of  changes=  1X2X3  =  6. 

For  demonstration,  let  the  three  things  be  designated  by 
a,  b,  c.  We  find,  by  trial,  that  we  can  arrange  these  three 
letters  in  six  different  ways,  and  no  more;  as  thus:  a  b  c, 
c  b  a,  b  c  a,  c  a  b,  b  a  c,  a  c  b. 

Or,  let  three  figures  be  used;  as  1,  2,  3.  We  can  ar- 
range these  figures  as  1  2  3,  3  2  1,  2  3  1,  3  1  2,  2  1  3,  1  3  2, 
in  six  changes,  and  not  otherwise. 

Or,  let  the  elements  be  three  syllables,  as  mo-ta-la;  they 
can  be  arranged  as  motala,  lamota,  tamola,  talamo,  molata, 
latoma:  in  six  ways,  and  no  more. 

If  two  things  are  given,  they  can  be  arranged  (number 
of  changes  =  1  X2  =  2)  in  two  ways,  and  no  other. 

If  four  things  have  been  given,  the  same  rule  shows  there 
are  twenty-four  permutations  of  these  tilings. 

If  five  things  are  given,  the  permutations  are  one  hundred 
and  twenty;  and  so  on. 

If  there  are  six  different-colored  flags  (and  only  six)  to 
be  used  as  signals,  Ave  learn,  by  this  rule,  that  we  can  make 
with  these  flags,  hoisting  all  of  them  each  time,  and  in  a  dif- 
ferent order  of  arrangement  for  each  signal,  and  never  show- 
ing two  similar  flags  in  any  signal,  seven  hundred  and  twenty 
signals.  This  is  the  limit  of  all  the  signals,  so  conditioned, 
that  can  be  made  with  these  flags. 

Or,  if  there  are  six  sounds  or  notes,  as  of  a  piano,  there 
can  be  sounded,  one  after  another,  six  notes  al  a  time,  for 
each  signal,  and  in  a  different  arrangement  each  time  for 
each  signal,  seven  hundred  and  twenty  signals. 

Or,  if  there  are  six  distinct  motions  which  can  be  made, 
one  after  the  other  there  are  seven  hundred  and  twenty 
ways  or  sequences, in  which  these  motions  can  be  made,  all 


24  MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS. 

being  made  each  time ;  they  can  represent  seven  hundred 
and  twenty  signals. 

With  five  flags,  or  sounds,  or  motions,  there  would  be, 
using  no  flag,  sound,  or  motion  twice  in  any  signal,  one 
hundred  and  twenty  signals  of  five  places. 

With  four  flags,  or  sounds,  or  motions,  there  would  be 
twenty-four  signals  of  four  places  ;  and  so  on. 

Thus,  if  the  four  flags  are  of  different  colors,  as  a  white, 
a  red,  a  green,  a  blue,  they  can  be  hoisted,  four  at  a  time, 
twenty-four  different  ways,  reading  from  above  down, 
thus:  1st,  white,  red,  green,  blue;  2d,  red,  white,  green, 
blue  ;  3d,  green,  white,  red,  blue ;  and  so  for  twenty-four 
changes. 

Or,  if  there  are  four  sounds,  a  long,  a  short,  a  high,  and  a 
low,  they  can  be  sounded,  all  four  at  a  time,  in  twenty-four 
different  orders,  as  thus:  1st,  long,  short,  high,  low;  2d, 
short,  long,  high,  low;  3d,  high,  long,  short,  low;  and  so 
for  twenty-four  changes. 

Or,  if  there  are  four  motions,  as  with  the  hand,  start- 
ing from  a  given  point,  say  as  high  as,  and  in  front  of  the 
shoulder,  a  motion  up,  a  motion  down,  a  motion  to  the 
right,  a  motion  to  the  left,  they  can  be  made,  making  all 
four  motions  at  a  time,  twenty-four  different  ways,  as 
thus:  1st,  up,  down,  right,  left;  2d,  down,  up,  right, 
left ;  3d,  right,  down,  up,  left ;  and  so  on  for  twenty-four 
changes. 

This  rule  applies,  the  number  of  elements  being  greater 
or  less,  as  the  case  may  be,  through  all  the  myriad  modes 
in  which  we  may  devise  the  elementary  signals. 

The  Table  of  Permutations,  computed  up  to  those  which 
can  be  made  with  nine  elements,  is  as  follows : 


MANUAL   OF  SIGNALS. 


25 


THE      NUMBIiU      OF      THINGS     OR 
SYMBOLS    BEING 


1 
2 
3 
4 
5 

6 
7 
8 
9 


Tin:  m  mi-.i  u  OF  CHANGES  w  men 
t  \\  BE  HADE  WITH  Tin  SB 
THINGS  OH  SYMBOLS  IS — 

1 

2 

6 

24 

120 

720 

5040 

40320 

30 2 880 


This  table  is  sometimes  of  value  for  immediate  reference. 
It  is  frequently  necessary  to  agree  that  each  preconcerted 
signal  shall  consist  of  a  certain  number  of  symbols,  and  also 
of  a  certain  number  of  places :  as  that  each  signal  shall  con- 
tain five  different  elements,  and  be  of  five  places.  In  such 
cases,  if  we  have  five  signals  or  sounds,  or  flags,  or  charac- 
ters, we  know  that  we  may  exhibit  them,  five  at  a  time,  and 
in  one  hundred  and  twenty  different  ways.  We  can  form 
a  code  accordinsdv. 

Or,  if  nine  things  are  given  us,  that  they  may  be  shown, 
nine  at  a  time,  and  in  three  hundred  and  sixty-two  thousand 
eight  hundred  and  eighty  changes.  We  can  make  with 
them  this  number  of  distinct  signals. 


The  Equation  of  Combinations  is  the  formula  by  which, 
any  number  of  different  things  being  given,  there  is  found 
how  many  changes  can  be  made  with  these  things,  taking 
any  given  number  of  them  at  a  time. 

Application. — Any  number  of  elementary  signals,  or 
symbols  standing  for  them,  being  given,  to  find  how  many 
combination   signals  can   be  made,  using   the  elementary 

2 


26  MANUAL    OF   SIGNALS. 

signals  in  given  numbers  of  them  at  a  time,  and  no  element- 
ary signal  appearing  more  than  once  in  any  signal — 

Rule. — Designate  the  elementary  signals  or  things  by 
numbers,  in  regular  series,  up  to  the  full  number  given. 
Take  a  regular  series  of  deceasing  numbers,  beginning  with 
a  number  equal  to  the  full  number  of  elementary  signals 
(symbols)  given,  and  diminishing  by  one  for  as  many  terms 
as  shall  be  equal  to  the  number  of  elementary  signals  to  be 
used  at  a  time,  multiply  the  numbers  of  this  series  together, 
and  the  product  will  be  the  amount  required. 

Illustration.— If  five  things  are  given,  how  many  dif- 
ferent combinations  can  be  made,  using  all  of  these  things, 
but  using  only  three  at  a  time  ? 

The  number  of  combinations =5X4X3  =  60,  the  answer. 

If  three  things  are  given,  how  many  combinations  can  be 
made,  using  only  two  things  at  a  time  ? 

Number  of  combinations  =  3X2  =  6,  the  answer. 

For  illustration,  let  the  three  things  given  be  the  letters 
a,  b,  c.  The  combination  of  these  letters  by  twos  are  ab, 
ac,  be,  ba,  cb,  ca,  or  six  in  number.  Or  let  the  three  things 
be  three  figures,  1,  2,  3.  The  combination  of  these  figures, 
by  twos,  are  12,  13,  21,  23,  31,  32,  six  in  number.  Or  let 
the  three  things  be  three  syllables,  mo-ta-la.  The  combina- 
tion of  these  syllables,  by  twos,  are  mo-la,  mo-ta,  la-ta,  la- 
ma, ta-mo,  ta-la,  or  six  in  number. 

If  seven  things  are  given,  to  be  used  three  at  a  time,  no 
thing  being  used  more  than  once  in  any  combination,  the 
number  of  combinations  would  be  7X0X5  =  210,  the 
answer.  - 

If  there  are  six  different-colored  flags  to  be  used  as  sig- 
nals, we  learn,  by  this  rule,  that  there  can  be  made  with 
these  flags,  hoisting  them  two  at  a  time  and  in  a  dif- 
ferent order  of  arrangement  for  each  signal,  and  never 
showing  two  similar  flags  in  any  signal  (6X5  =  30),  thirty 
signals. 


MANUAL  OF  SIGNALS.  27 

Or  hoisting  three  flags  at   a  time,  with  the  same  condi- 
tions (6X5X4=120),  one  hundred  and  twenty  signals. 
Or  hoisting  tour  flags  at  a  time  (6X5X4X3=360),  three 

hundred  and  sixty  signals. 

Or  hoisting  five  flags  at  a  time  (6XoX4X3X2  =  720), 
seven  hundred  and  twenty  signals. 

Or  hoisting  six  flags  at  a  time  (ii  X-r>  X  IX  3  X  2  X  1  =  720), 
seven  hundred  and  twenty  signals. 

The  practical  use  of  this  rule,  is  t<>  enable  us  to  at  once 
determine,  any  number  of  things,  motions,  etc.,  being  de- 
cided upon  to  be  used  as  signals,  how  many  signals  can  be 
made  with  them,  using  them  by  twos  or  threes,  or  other 
number  of  them  together. 

If  then  there  are  six  sounds  or  notes,  as  of  a  piano,  there 
can  be  sounded  two  dissimilar  notes,  one  after  the  other  at 
a  time,  for  each  signal,  and  in  different  order  of  arrange- 
ment for  each  signal,  thirty  signals.  Or,  with  three  notes  at 
a  time,  there  can  be  sounded  one  hundred  and  twenty  sig- 
nals. Or,  with  four  notes  sounded,  four  hundred  and  eighty 
signals.  Or,  with  five  notes  at  a  time  sounded,  two  thou- 
sand four  hundred  signals. 

If  there  are  eight  kinds  of  flashes,  how  many  different 
signals  can  be  made,  showing  two  dissimilar  flashes  at  a 
time  ?    (8  X  7  =  56),  the  answer. 

How  many  different  signals  can  be  arranged  for  six 
different  kinds  of  rockets,  it  being  agreed  that  three  dis- 
similar rockets  shall  be  thrown  up  for  each  signal '?  An- 
swer, 120. 

If  there  are  nine  different-colored  flags,  how  many  sig- 
nals can  be  made,  hoisting  four  different  flags  at  a  time? 
Answer,  9X8X7X6  =  3024. 

With  five  different  sounds,  how  many  signals  of  the 
third  class,  or  of  three  places,  can  be  made?  Answer, 
5X^X3  =  00.  How  many  signals  of  the  2d  class?  An- 
swer, 5X1  =  20. 


28  MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS. 

Any  number  of  things  being  given,  to  ascertain  the  sum 
of  all  the  modes  in  which  they  can  be  exhibited,  using  all, 
or  any  one,  or  any  number  of  them,  at  a  time,  no  thing  ap- 
pearing twice  in  any  exhibition. 

Rule. — Find  the  number  of  combinations  of  each  class 
which  can  be  made  with  the  things  given.  The  sum  of 
these  numbers  added  together  will  be  the  answer  re- 
quired. 

Application. — Any  certain  elementary  or  primary  sig- 
nals being  given,  to  find  how  many  signals  in  all  can 
be  displayed,  computing  all  the  signals  which  can  be 
exhibited  with  these  elementary  signals,  using  all  of  them 
or  any  numbers  of  them  together,  or  any  one  of  them, 
no  elementary  signal  appearing  more  than  once  in  any 
signal — 

Find,  by  the  preceding  rules,  the  number  of  signals  of 
each  class  which  can  be  made  with  the  given  number  of 
signals.  The  sum  of  all  these  numbers,  added  together, 
will  be  the  answer  required. 

If  there  are  six  elementary  signals  given,  the  total  of  all 
the  signals  which  can  be  exhibited  will  be:  1st,  all  the  sig- 
nals which  can  be  shown  by  using  the  given  signals  sepa- 
rately, each  as  a  single  signal :  or  signals  of  one  place,  or  of 
the  1st  class.  Added  to  [2d]  all  the  signals  which  can  be 
made  by  using  the  given  signals  by  twos,  or  as  signals  of 
two  places,  or  2d  class.  Added  to  [3d]  those  which  can  be 
made  by  using  them  by  threes — that  is,  signals  of  three 
places,  or  3d  class.  Added  to  [4th]  those  which  can  be 
made  by  using  them  by  fours — that  is,  signals  of  four  places, 
or  4th  class.  Added  to  [5th]  those  which  can  be  made  by 
using  them  by  fives — that  is,  signals  of  five  places,  or  5th 
class.  Added  to  [6th]  those  which  can  be  made  by  using 
them  by  sixes— that  is,  signals  of  six  places,  or  the  6  th 
class.     Thus,  by  preceding  rules,  the  total  number  of  signals 


MANUAL  OF   SIGNALS.  29 

equals  6  [signals  of*  the  1st  class]  +30  [signals  2d  class] 
+  120  [signals  3d  class]  +360  [signals  4th  class]  +720 
[signals  5th  class]  720  [signals  Oth  class]  equals  1956, 
the  answer. 

If  five  elementary  signals  are  given,  how  many  signals, 
of  all  kinds,  can  be  exhibited  ?  Number  =(5  +  (4x5)  =  20  + 
(5x4x3)  =  60  +  (5x4x3x2)  =  120  +  (5x4x3x2)=120)  =  325,  the  an- 
swer. 

If  there  are  six  different  flasks,  how  many  signals  can  be 
made  showing  no  two  similar  Mags  in  any  signal  ? 

There  can  be  made,  showing  one  flag  at  a  time,  six  sig- 
nals ;  showing  two  at  a  time,  thirty  signals  ;  showing  three 
at  a  time,  one  hundred  and  twenty  signals ;  showing  four 
at  a  time,  three  hundred  and  sixty  signals;  showing  five  at 
a  time,  seven  hundred  and  twenty  signals ;  showing  six  at 
a  time,  seven  hundred  and  twenty  signals.  The  total  is 
1956  signals. 

If  there  are  four  different  sounds  or  notes,  as  of  an  instru- 
ment, how  many  signals,  of  all  kinds,  can  be  made,  sounding 
no  two  similar  notes  in  any  signal  ? 

There  can  be  sounded  four  signals  of  one  note  each, 
twelve  signals  of  two  notes,  twenty-four  signals  of  three 
notes,  twenty-four  signals  of  four  notes.  Total,  64  sig- 
nals. 

If  there  are  four  different  motions,  how  many  signals 
can  be  made,  making  no  two  motions  alike  in  any 
signal  ? 

There  can  be  four  signals  of  one  motion  each,  twelve  sig- 
nals of  two  motions  each,  twenty-four  signals  of  three  mo- 
tions each,  twenty-four  signals  of  four  motions  each  :  equal 
to  sixty-four  signals  in  all. 

The  practical  use  of  these  rules  is  to  enable  us  to  deter- 
mine, any  certain  number  of  signs,  sounds,  motions,  etc., 
being  decided  upon  to  be  used  as  signals,  hoAV  many  dif- 


30  MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS. 

ferent  signals,  of  all  kinds,  we  can  display  with  them,  using 
no  sign  twice  in  any  signal. 


Equations  of  Arrangements. — Any  certain  number  of 
sorts  of  elementary  signals,  or  symbols  standing  for  them, 
being  given,  and  it  being  permitted  to  use  any  combination 
or  arrangement  of  these  signals,  or  of  the  symbols,  and  any 
repetition  of  any  one  or  more  of  them  in  any  signal,  to  find 
how  many  signals  of  any  class — that  is,  of  any  certain  num- 
of  places,  can  be  made  with  these  signals — 

Rule. — -Take  the  whole  number  of  elementary  signals,  or 
of  the  symbols,  and  multiply  it  continually  by  itself  so  many 
times  less  one  as  there  are  places  in  the  required  signal;  or 
raise  the  given  number  of  signals  or  of  symbols  to  that  power 
of  which  the  number  of  places  to  be  in  the  required  signals 
shall  be  tlie  exponent. 

The  formula  is  as  follows  : 

Let  N  =  the  number  of  changes  of  possible  signals. 

n= number  of  sorts  of  things  (of  the  elementary  sig- 
nals or  of  symbols). 
n'  =  number  of  places  to  be  in  the  required  signals. 

ThenX^n"'. 

Example. — Using  three  sorts  of  elementary  signals,  and 
repeating  any  symbol  as  often  as  may  be  necessary  in  any 
combination  signal,  how  many  signals  of  four  places  (4th 
class)  may  be  made  ? 

X  umber  of  4th  class  signals  =  3  X  3  X  3  X  3  or  3*  =  81. 

How  many  signals  of  three  places  ? 

Number  3s,  or  3X3X3  =  27  signals. 

For  demonstration,  let  the  given  signals,  or  things,  be  of 
the  sorts  designated,  as  1,  2,  3.  These  figures  can  be  ar- 
ranged, 111,  222,  333.  112,  113,  221,  223,  331,  332,  213, 
312,  321,  123,  132,  231,  232,  212,  323,   313,   121,   131,   133, 


MANUAL   OF    SICXALS.  31 

122,  233,  211,  322,  311— thai  is,  in  twenty-seven  modes.    No 
other  or  more  exhibitions  of  three  places  arc  possible. 

Or  let  tlic  Mills  of  things  be  of  letters,  as  a,  b,  c.  Let- 
ters of  these  kinds  can  be  exhibited  in* expressions  of  three 
places,  as  follows,  and  not  otherwise:  aaa,  bbb,  CCC,  aab, 
aac,  bba,  bbc — and  thus  on  to  twenty-seven  expressions. 

It  will  be  seen,  in  these  two  instances,  that  the  result  at- 
tained, by  actual  trial,  is  precisely  that  indicated  by  the 
mathematical  rule. 

Having  two  sorts  of  flags,  as  a  number  of  red  flags  ami  a 
number  of  white  flags;  or  a  number  of  strips  of  red  cloth 
and  of -white  cloth,  how  many  signals  can  be  exhibited, 
showing  four  flags  or  strips  in  each  signal  ?  2  X  2  X  2  X  2,  or 
24  =  16,  the  answer. 

How  many  showing  three  flags  at  a  time?  2X2X2  =  8, 
the  answer. 

With  any  two  sorts  of  sounds,  as  of  a  bass  and  of  a  light 
drum;  or,  two  different  kinds  of  notes,  as  of  a  piano  or  a 
bugle,  how  many  signals  can  be  sounded  with  three  sounds 
in  each  signal?     ISrumber  =  2X 2X2  =  8,  the  answer. 

With  any  two  sorts  of  motions,  as  motions  to  the  right 
and  motions  to  the  left,  or  motions  up  and  motions  down, 
how  many  signals  can  be  made,  making  four  motions  for 
each  signal?     Number=24  =  16,  the  answei\ 

Any  certain  number  of  sorts  of  elementary  signals,  or 
symbols  standing  for  them,  being  given,  to  find  how  many 
different  signals  can  be  made,  computing  all  the  signals 
which  can  be  exhibited  with  these  elementary  signals,  using 
all  the  expressions  which  can  be  made  by  exhibiting  any 
numbers  of  them  togethei',  or  any  one  of  them,  or  any  repe- 
titions of  any  one  or  more  of  them  in  any  signal,  the  limit 
of  computation  being  fixed  only  by  the  number  of  places  to 
be  in  the  highest  class  of  signals — 

Rule. — Find  the  number  of  signals  of  each  class  which 
can  be  made  with  the  given  elementary  signals  irp  to  and 


32  MANUAL    OF   SIGNALS. 

including  those  of  the  limiting  class ;    add  these  numbers 
together.     The  sum  will  be  the  answer. 

The  formula  is  as  follows : 

Let  N=number  of  signals  required. 

n=nuniber  of  sorts  of  things  or  signals  (of  the  ele- 
ments or  of  the  symbols). 
n'= number  of  places  to  be  in  the  limiting  class  of 
signals. 

Then  N  =  n+n2  +  n3  +  *  *  *  *  +  nu'  equal  the  answer. 

Example. — If  there  are  three  sorts  of  elementary  signals, 
how  many  signals,  of  all  kinds,  can  be  made,  computing  up 
to  those  of  four  places  ? 

Number =3  (signals  of  1st  class,  or  single  signals)  +9 
(signals  of  2d  class,  or  of  two  places) +  27  (signals  of  3d 
class,  or  of  three  places) +  81  (signals  of  4th  class,  or  of 
four  places)  =  120,  the  answer. 

Or,  more  plainly,  the  total  number  of  possible  signals, 
wjth  these  conditions,  is  the  number  of  signals  of  one  place 
that  can  be  made  added  to  the  signals  of  two  places,  added 
to  the  signals  of  three  places,  added  to  the  signals  of  four 
places,  the  limit. 

If  there  are  two  sorts  of  elementary  signals — that  is,  if 
the  elements  to  be  used  in  making  any  required  signals  are 
but  two  in  number — how  many  signals  can  be  made,  no  sig- 
nal having  more  than  three  places  ? 

Number =2  (signals  of  the  first  class) +4  (signals  of  2d 
class) +8  (signals  of  the  3d  class)  =  14,  the  answer. 

If  there  are  six  kinds  of  motions,  how  many  signals  can 
be  made,  having  in  no  signal  more  than  three  motions  ? — 
Six  of  one  motion,  thirty-six  of  two  motions,  two  hundred 
and  sixteen  of  three  motions.  Total,  258  signals,  the  an- 
swer. 

How  many  different  signals  can  be  made  with  drums, 
hats,  knapsacks,  and  coats,  showing  not  more  than  four 
articles  for  any  signal  ? 


MANUAL   OF    SIGNALS.  33 

Number=4+43  +  43  +  44  =  340,  the  answer. 

If  there  are  two  sorts  of  flashes,  as  of  red  flushes  and  of 
white  flashes,  how  many  signals  can  be  made,  no  signal 
having  more  than  five  flashes? 

:Number=2  +  2-  +  '23  +  24  +  26;  or,  2+4+8+16+32  =  62, 
the  answer. 

If  there  are  two  kinds  of  motions,  as  motions  up  and 
motions  down,  from  a  fixed  point,  how  many  signals  can  be 
made,  using  not  more  than  four  motions  for  any  signal  ? 

Answer,  30. 


For  convenience  of  reference  is  inserted  the  table  on  the 
following  page,  showing  the  number  of  sorts  of  elementary 
signals  (i.  e.,  the  elements)  to  be  used,  and  the  number  of 
places  to  appear  in  the  signal  being  given,  how  many  sig- 
nals of  each  class  (that  is,  of  any  certain  number  of  places) 
can  be  made.  This  table  is  drawn  for  all  signals  up  to 
those  of  nine  elements  and  nine  places. 

For  use,  find  at  the  left  of  the  table,  between  two  hori- 
zontal lines,  the  number  of  elements.  Find  at  the  top  of 
the  table,  between  vertical  lines,  the  number  of  class,  or 
number  of  places  to  be  in  the  signals.  The  number  inclosed 
by  these  four  lines,  at  their  intersection,  shows  the  number 
of  signals  that  can  be  made.  Thus,  with  three  elements, 
how  many  signals  of  four  places  can  be  made?  Find  three 
(the  number  of  elements)  on  the  left  of  the  table.  Find 
four  (the  number  of  places)  at  the  top.  The  number  at  the 
intersection  of  the  inclosing  lines  is  81,  the  answer. 

With  seven  elements,  how  many  signals  of  the  4th  class 
can  be  made?  Number  opposite  7,  on  the  left  of  the  table, 
and  4,  at  the  top,  is  2401. 

2* 


34 


MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS. 


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PLATE    I. 

EXAMPLES  OF   PERMUTATIONS,  COMBINATIONS,  AND  ARRANGEMENTS. 

There  being  given  as  Symbols— Red,  Green,  Yellow,  Bine,  Purple. 

THESE  ARE  PERMUTATIONS. 


T3  □ 


In  Permutations,  all  the  Symbols  given  are  used,  but  each  time  differently  placed. 


Symbols  given  :  Red,  Green,  Yellow,  Blue,  Purple. 


THESE  ARE  COMBINATIONS. 


In  Combinations,  the  Symbols  given  are  used  two  or  three  or  more  together  at  a  time. 
No  Symbol  is  used  more  than  once  in  any  Combination. 


Symbols  given  :  Red,  Green,  Yellow,  Blue,  Purple. 
THESE  ARE  ARRANGEMENTS. 


n 


i    rrnr 


tzczn 


In  Arrangements,  all  the  Symbols  may  be  used  in  any  arrangement,  or  thoy  may 
be  used  two  or  three  or  more  together  to  any  extent,  and  any  of  the  Symbols  may 
be  repeated  any  number  of  times  in  any  arrangement. 


H  WL'AL   OF   SIGNA1  B.  35 

Plate  T.  affords  Examples  of  Permutations,  Combina- 
tions, and  Arrangements.  These  can  be  practically  illus- 
trated by  the  use  of  colored  blocks  to  bo  permuted,  com- 
bined, or  arranged  at  will. 

The  Rules  of  Permutations  and  Combinations  besl  apply 
to  permanent  signals.  As  signals  of  this  kind  are  generally 
shown,  all  the  elementary  signals,  or  the  components  of  the 
complete  signal,  are  exhibited  together,  and  remain  in  view- 
so  long  as  the  signal  is  exposed.  It,  is  thus  difficult,  is  in- 
convenient, and  is  often  impossible  to  repeat  any  of  them 
in  the  same  signal.  Similarly,  the  Permutations  and  Com- 
binations of  any  determined  number  of  things  show  only 
those  changes  which  can  be  made  without  repeating  any- 
thing in  any  change. 

The  Rules  for  Arrangements  have  their  most  useful  ap- 
plications to  transient  signals;  or,  to  those  cases  in  which 
it  is  necessary  to  improvise  signals  with  any  things  that 
may  be  at  hand ;  as  when  there  are  but  very  few  kinds  of 
articles,  but  large  numbers  of  similar  articles  of  each  kind, 
as  strips  of  flannel  of  two  or  three  different  colors;  coats 
and  kerchiefs;  caps  and  knapsacks;  drums  and  bunches  of 
hay,  etc. 

Transient  signals,  and  signals  made  with  these  simple 
things  or  signs,  admit  readily  of  repetitions.  It  is  easy  in 
making  signals  of  flashes,  as  by  a  lantern,  to  repeat  these 
flashes,  making  one  after  the  other;  and  similarly  can  be 
repeated  sounds,  as  of  a  bell,  or  motions  made  with  any- 
thing. In  the  same  way,  if  there  are  strips  of  flannel,  and 
there  are  only  two  colors  among  them,  it  is  easy  to  hoist 
the  strips  two,  or  three,  or  four  at  a  time:  the  repetitions 
of  any  strip  in  any  signal  forming  parts  of  that  signal. 
Some  idea  of  the  very  great  gain  in  the  scope  of  represent 
tation,  which  is  made  by  using  in  signals  all  the  arrange- 
ments into  which  repetitions  or  combinations  of  repetitions 
enter,  may  be  had  from  the  following  instance : 


o6  MANUAL   OF    SIGNALS. 

With  three  things  used  as  signals,  in  all  ways,  as  by- 
ones,  by  twos,  and  by  threes,  we  can  make  but  fifteen  sig- 
nals, if  no  repetition  is  permitted  in  any  signal.  Thus 
there  are  [see  combinations]  3  of  one  place,  +  6  of  two 
places,  +  6  of  three  places,  =  15. 

With  three  sorts  of  things,  repetitions  of  things  being 
used  as  signals,  and  repetitions  of  one  or  more  of  them 
being  permitted  in  any  signal,  we  can  make,  no  signal 
having  more  than  three  places,  thirty-nine  signals.  Thus, 
there  are  [see  arrangements]  3  of  one  place,  +  9  of  two 
places,  +  27  of  three  places,  =  39.  Or  the  power  of  repre- 
sentation is  more  than  doubled. 


Alphabetic  Elementary  Codes. 

The  Alphabet  we  use  is  a  code  of  twenty-six  signals,  by 
combinations  of  which  all  words  [word-signals]  are  made, 
and  which,  by  long  practice,  we  recognize  readily  when 
made  by  sound  [spoken],  or  by  sight  [written].  All  lan- 
guage [spoken  or  written]  is  simply  signals  by  sound ;  or, 
signals  made  visible.  Any  other  signal  symbols  would 
have  answered  just  as  well  for  the  letters,  if  we  were  as  well 
trained  to  recognize  them.  To  illustrate  this,  it  is  neces- 
sary only  to  consider  the  different  alphabets  of  the  different 
languages,  which,  differing  from  each  other  in  appearance 
and  in  sound,  are  equally  efficient  to  convey  all  meanings 
of  the  respective  languages.  To  devise  telegraphic  alpha- 
bets, or  sign-languages  for  the  English  language,  is  to 
represent  these  twenty-six  letter-signals  by  other  signals. 
These  other  signals  we  make  as  simply  as  possible.  We 
may  designate  each  letter  by  a  distinct  or  arbitrary  signal. 
It  is  better  to  use  systematized  signals.  Thus,  if  we  have 
any  two  motions,  signs,  sounds,  etc,  we  are  to  use  as  ele- 


MANUAL  OF   SIGNALS.  37 

meats  or  symbols,  -\ve  designate  the  twenty-six  letters  of 
the  alphabet,  each  by  one  of  the  firsl  twenty-six  arrange- 
ments, or  combinations  of  these  elements.  Or,  we  may 
use  any  twenty-six  combinations  or  arrangements.  The 
iirst  twenty-six  are  generally  used,  because  they  are  the' 
shortest. 

Thus,  for  instance,  there  are,  say,  two  elements,  and 
these  are  symbolized  by  the  figures  "1"  and  "2."  Then 
A  may  be  1,  B  may  be  2,  C  may  be  12,  D  may  be  22, 
E  may  be  11,  F  may  be  21,  G  may  be  121.  H  may  be  212, 
I  maybe  221,  J  maybe  112  ;  and  so  on.  Now,  for  a  second 
illustration,  if  the  primaries  taken  are  colors,  as  red  and 
white,  then  "  1 "  may  stand  for  the  "  red,"  and  "  2 "  for 
the  "white;"  and  the  letters  may  be  the  colors  shown. 
Thus, 


A,  may  be  12,  which  is  "red-white;"         or, 

B,  "   '    121,         "        "red-white-red,"  " 


C,       "        111,         "        "red-red-red,"      "     fl 


and  thus  for  all  the  alphabet. 

It  is  as  easy  to  read  "A,"  or  "B,"  or  "C,"  when  we  see 
these  color-symbols,  as  it  is  to  read  A  or  B  or  C  printed. 
This  is  a  code  of  two  elements. 

Xow  if,  instead  of  two  motions,  or  two  colors,  etc.,  or 
two  elements,  there  are  to  be  three,  then  we  designate  the 
twenty-six  letters  of  the  alphabet,  each  by  one  of  the  first 
twenty-six  combinations  or  arrangements  of  three  symbols. 
Then,  for  instance,  A  may  be  1,  B  may  be  2,  C  may  be  3, 
D  may  be  12,  E  may  be  13,  F  may  be  21,  G  31 ;  and  thus 
on. 

Now  if  the  three  primaries  are  colors,  as  red,  green,  and 
yellow,  then — 


38 


MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS. 


A,  mav  be  1,  which  is 


B, 

"             9 

-•> 

c, 

3, 

D, 

«        12, 

E, 

"        13, 

F, 

»        21, 

G, 

"        31, 

"  red," 

or, 

"  green," 

« 

"  yellow," 

a 

"  red-green," 

u 

"  red-yellow," 

a 

"  green-red," 

u 

"  yellow-red," 

c< 

J 


and  thus  on. 

The  letters  now  under  a  different  guise  from  those  last 
shown,  are  as  easily  read  in  the  colors  as  before,  or  as  the 
printed  letters. 

So  they  as  easily  form  words ;  thus  the  word  caged  is  in 
color-symbols : 


3 

□ 

1 

31 

c 

a 

S 

13 


12 

L 

d 


The  word  beaded  is  in  color-symbols 

□  so  ■  cj  m 

The  same  word  is  in  figure-symbols : 
2  13  1  12  13 


12 


If  there  are  five  elements  assumed,  the  symbols  are  1 ,  2, 
3,  4,  5.  Then  A  may  be  12,  B  13,  C  14,  D  15,  E  21,  F  22, 
G  23,  and  so  on. 

Now  if  the  elements  are  colors,  as  red,  green,  yellow, 
blue,  and  black,  then — 


A,  may  be  12,. which  is  "red-green," 

B,  "        13,         "         "red-yellow," 


MANUAL   OF   SIi.NAI  S. 


C,  may  be  14,  which  is  "  red-blue," 

D,  "  15,         "         "red-black," 

E,  "  21,         " 

F,  "  22,         " 

G,  "  23,  " 
and  thus  on. 


"  green-red," 
"  green-green," 

"  green-yellow," 


The  color-letters  are  again  as  legible  as  the  printed. 

If  there  are  six  elements,  then  the  signal  alphabet  is  the 
first  twenty-six  arrangements  of  these  elements.  Symbol- 
ized, A  may  be  22  ;  B  may  be  13  ;  C  may  be  14  ;  1)  may 
be  15  ;  E  may  be  16  ;  F  may  be  21  ;  and  so  on. 

If  these  elements  are  colors,  as  red,  green,  yellow,  blue, 
white,  and  black — 


and  so  for  the  alphabet. 

It  will  be  noticed  by  these  illustrations,  that  the  number- 
symbol  standing  for  each  letter,  as  clearly  symbolizes  it  as 
•Iocs  the  color-symbol.  The  letter-numbers,  written  each 
after  another  in  proper  sequence,  form  words. 

In  the  same  manner,  if  the  elements  had  been,  instead  of 
the  colors,  different  motions  or  sounds,  etc.,  symbolize' 1  by 
the  figures  1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  etc.,  as  have  been  the  colors  in 


40  MANUAL    OF   SIGNALS. 

these  examples,  the  figure  combination  or  number  standing 
for  each  letter,  would  clearly  indicate  the  signal  motions 
or  sounds,  etc.,  required  to  be  made  together  to  signify  it. 
It  is  rarely  worth  the  while  to  devise  signal  alphabets  of 
more  than  six  elements  for  the  purpose  of  telegraphing. 
The  principle  of  procedure  would  remain  the  same. 


Signal  Numerals  are  devised  after  the  same  manner  as  the 
Letters,  by  the  arrangements  of  the  given  elements ;  ten 
additional  arrangements,  made  for  this  purpose  upon  the 
same  plans  as  the  letter-signals,  designating  the  nine  digits 
and  the  cipher.  Thus,  to  make  an  alphabet,  and  in  addition 
the  numeral  digits,  the  first  thirty-six,  or  any  thirty-six  ar- 
rangements of  the  given  elements  are  taken.  The  illustra- 
tions for  the  numerals  in  the  codes  of  each  order  (i.  e.,  those 
of  two,  three,  four,  five,  and  six  elements,  and  so  on)  would 
be  similar  to  those  in  the  cases  of  the  letters  of  the  Alpha- 
bets. 

Thus,  for  a  code  of  two  elements,  the  colors  "  white"  and 
"red"  being  elements,  and  the  figures  "  1"  and  "  2"  the 
symbols — 

The  numeral  character  "  1"  may  be  symbolized  as  1221, 
or,  "  white-red-red-white ;"  or, 

The  numeral  character  "2"  may  be  2112,  or,  "red-white- 
white-red;"  or,  I 


The  numeral  character  "3"  may  be  2212,  or,  "red-red- 
white-red  ;"  or,   I 


and  so  continued  for  all  the  digits  and  the  cipher. 

For  a  code  of  three  elements,  colors  "  red,"  "  white,"  and 
"blue,"  the  elements;  figures  "  1,"  "2,"  "3,"  the  symbols, 


MANUAL   OF    SIGNALS.  .j-1 

the   numeral    character   "1"  may   be   321, or,"  blue-white- 
red  ;    Or,       < 

The  numeral  character  "2"  may  be  128,  or,  "red-white- 

blue;"  or,  ■■" 


The  numeral  character  "3"  may  be  132,  or,  "red-blue- 
white;"  or, 


etc.,  etc.,  etc. 

When  distinctive  signals  are  not  devised  for  the  numerals, 
the  letters  of  the  alphabet  are  sometimes  used  as  numerals. 
Thus,  A  would  stand  for  the  numeral  "  1 ;"  B  stands  for  the 
numeral  "  2  ;"  C  stands  for  the  numeral  "  3  ;"  and  so  for  the 
ten  characters.  Thus  to  make  "  365,"  there  would  be  writ- 
ten or  signalled  "CF  E."  To  make  "  10,"  is  made  "  AJ." 
To  make  "  12,"  is  made  "  AB."  To  make  "42,"  is  made 
"DB." 

The  Roman  style  of  numeral  letters  may  be  used  when 
<ihey  are  preferable. 

Periods,  Commas,  points  of  punctuation,  etc.,  are,  in  each 
order  of  signals,  formed  by  arrangements  of  the  same  ele- 
ments as  are  the  alphabets. 

Thus  for  a  code  of  two  elements,  "  red"  and  "  white :" 


A  period  "."  may  be  12221,  or,  HZZEZC 


A  comma  ","       "      21112,   " 
A  colon     ";"        "      21212,    " 


The  illustrations  for  codes  of  three  or  four  or  more  ele- 
ments may  be  devised. 

It,  will  be  understood  that  any  motions,  colors,  or  signs 
could  have  been  used  as  elements  instead  of  the  colors  above 
given  for  illustration. 


42  MANUAL    OF    SIGNALS. 

To  complete  a  sign-language,  it  is  only  necessary  that 
letter- signals,  formed  as  here  illustrated,  should  be  made 
one  after  the  other  into  words,  having  a  pause  of  time  or  a 
signal  after  each  letter,  so  that  each  may  be  distinct ;  and  a 
longer  pause,  or  a  pause-signal,  after  each  word,  to  show 
that  it  is  completed.  As  a  general  rule,  the  pause  of  time 
will  be  sufficient  to  separate  the  letters.  It  is  proper  to  use 
a  pause-signal  after  each  word.  Signal  numerals  and  points 
of  punctuation,  etc.,  should  be  used  when  they  are  neces- 
sary, the  completed  numeral,  or  point  of  punctuation,  having 
after  it  a  pause-signal. 

Preceding  and  following  numeral  letters,  should  be  a  pre- 
concerted signal:  the  sio-nal  letter  "  n,"  for  instance,  to 
clearly  note  the  letters  to  be  used  as  numerals. 

Message  Codes  of  Signals. 

Message  codes  are  devised  that  messages  may  be  sent  by 
preconcert.  When  parties  are  about  to  separate,  it  may  be 
necessary  to  provide  for  such  communication,  or  it  may  be 
needed  in  certain  contingencies  possibly  foreseen.  Codes 
are  prepared  as  follows : 

Any  number  of  signals,  or  any  number  of  numerals,  or 
any  number  of  letters  are  written  in  a  column,  one  after  the 
other,  either  singly  or  combined.  Opposite  each  of  them, 
or  any  of  them,  are  placed  whole  sentences,  or  parts  of  sen- 
tences, which  it  may  be  supposed  it  will  be  necessary  to 
transmit.  For  each  of  these  sentences,  the  appropriate 
numerals,  or  letters,  stand — that  is,  they  indicate  it.  ft  ow, 
Avhen  any  one  or  more  of  these  number  or  letter  indices  are 
signalled,  the  sentence  opposite  in  the  column,  and  for  which 
it  or  they  stand,  is  supposed  to  be  meant,  or  transmitted  ; 
and  these  sentences  are  read,  either  one  at  a  time,  convey- 
ing complete  messages  ;  or  one  after  the  other,  in  the  order 


MANUAL  OF  SIGNALS.  L3 

in  which  the  indices  are  shown,  making  together  the  com- 
plete message. 

Examples  of  Codi  - 

1,  Close  with  the  enemy. 

2,  Enemy  arc  pressing. 

3,  Close  to  the  works. 

4,  Send  us. 

5,  Men. 

6,  Horses  and  harness. 

7,  Guus  and  ammunition. 

8,  1  will  go. 

9,  Fall  back  to  your  first  position. 

10,  Enemy  are  in  full  retreat. 

11,  Cease  firing. 

23,  Advance  cautiously,  etc.,  etc. 

Such  lists  may  be  prolonged  indefinitely. 
Or,  this  could  be  written  as  follows ;  the  first  ten  letters 
of  the  alphabet  used  instead  of  the  numeral  characters: 

A,  Close  with  the  enemy. 

B,  Enemy  are  pressing. 

C,  Close  to  the  works. 

D,  Send  us. 

5jC  "jC  *fi  rjp 

AA,  Cease  firing. 

BC,  Advance  cautiously,  etc.,  etc. 

And  so  through  the  list. 

Now  the  indices  in  the  columns  maybe  of  any  number  of 
places,  and  their  number  may  be  increased  to  any  extent. 
So,  for  instance : 

89,  or  HI,  which  may  stand  for,  "we  are  in  want  of  siege 
materials  ; ' 

90,  or  IJ,  which  may  stand  for,  "the  obstacles  are  im- 
passable ;" 


44  MANUAL   OF    SIGNALS. 

989,  or  IHI,  which  may  stand  for,  "  we  Avill  rejoin  you 
to-morrow ;" 

9901,  or  IIJA,  which  may  stand  for,  "  be  guided  hereafter 
by  written  instructions ;" 

are  examples  of  indices  in  two,  three,  and  four  places.  So 
thousands  of  messages  may  be  written  in  books,  each  mes- 
sage having  opposfte  to  it  its  indicating  numbers  or  letters. 
The  signal-books  of  navies  are  arranged  in  this  manner. 

If  with  such  lists  the  numeral  "  1"  or  "A"  is  signalled, 
the  signal  would  be  read,  "  Close  with  the  enemy." 

The  signal  "  2"  or  the  letter  "  B"  made  or  shown  is  read, 
"  Enemy  are  pressing." 

So  any  sentence  is  indicated  by  signalling  the  figures  or 
letters  which  stand  for  it.  These  figures  or  letters  must  be 
signalled  without  any  pause-signals  or  separating  signals 
between  them,  when  the  clauses  or  sentences  are  to  be  read 
conjoined.  Meanings  are  entirely  changed  by  using  or  not 
using  separating  signals  between  the  figures.  For  example, 
the  signal  "  23"  or  "  BC"  shown  is  read,  "Advance  cau- 
tiously." But  the  signals  "  2"  and  "  3,"  or  the  letters  "  B" 
and  "  C,"  made  or  shown  in  close  succession,  with  a  distinct 
separating  signal  between  them,  are  read,  "Enemy  are 
pressing — Close  to  the  works."  The  numeral  "4"  or  letter 
"  D"  made  alone  is  read,  "  Send  us."  The  numeral  "  3"  or 
letter  "  C"  signalled  is  read,  "  Close  to  the  works."  The 
signal  "  4 — 3"  or  "  D — C"  (that  is,  these  signals  made  with 
separating  signal  between  them),  is  read,  "Send  us — Close 
to  the  works ;"  the  sentences  being  joined  together  in  the 
order  in  which  the  signals  are  exhibited.  The  signal  "  43" 
or  "  DC,"  the  same  signals  without  the  separating  signal, 
might  have  an  entirely  different  meaning,  and  might  stand 
for  any  single  sentence. 

In  the  supposed  list,  the  signal  "  4673,"  or  "  DFGC," 
signalled  together,  might  mean,  "  Open  communication  with 


MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS.  15 

the  Fleet  from  both  sides  of  the  river,"  or  any  preconcerted 
message.  The  signals  "  4—6—7—3,"  or  "  D— F— G— C," 
signalled  one  after  the  other  and  separated,  would   read, 

"Send  us — horses  and  harness — guns  and  ammunition — 
close  to  the  works." 

Codes  can  be  made  to  contain  any  number  of  messagi 
and  of  greater  or  less  length.  It  is  often  convenient  to 
have  codes  arranged  for  a  very  few  sentences:  as  for  de- 
tachments operating  in  a  mountainous  country  a  few  mes- 
sages may  be  arranged  which  will  enable  them  to  combine 
their  movements  at  distances  of  twenty  or  thirty  miles. 

It  is  not  essential,  in  forming  codes,  that  the  indices  shall 
be  formed  with  the  combinations  of  the  nine  digits  and  the 
cipher.  Any  given  number  of  symbols  or  letters,  or  any 
simple  signals,  may  be  taken,  and  then  every  possible  ar- 
rangement of  these  becomes,  when  exhibited,  an  indicating 
signal  for  a  sentence.  The  rules  before  given  enable  us  to 
compute,  before  attempting  to  draw  the  codes,  how  many 
indicating  signals  can  be  thus  made;  how  many  signal> 
each  of  a  certain  number  of  places  can  be  made;  and  other 
facts  necessary  to  be  known.  These  points  will  be  under- 
stood by  reference  to  the  examples  under  the  rules. 

To  form  codes,  is  only  to  attach  meanings  to  any  signals. 
The  signals  themselves  are  to  be  studied  and  computed  un- 
der the  rules  which  have  been  given.  Thus,  if  but  three 
elements  are  to  be  used,  codes  would  be  drawn  containing 
only  the  arrangements  of  three  symbols:  as,  for  instance, 
those  of  the  characters  "  1,"  "  2,"  and  "  3  ;"  and  there  could 
be  so  many  signals  in  the  code  as  there  are  arrangements 
of  three  symbols,  counting  all  up  to  arrangements  of  any 
fixed  number  of  places. 

1  may  be,  "Cavalry  are   approaching  rapidly  on  your 

right  and  rear." 

2  "        "The  shells  are  thrown  too  far  and  have  too 

long  fuses." 


13 

u 

112 

u 

111 

(( 

213 

ii 

3321 

u 

32212 

a 

2321 

a 

3333 

u 

22 

a 

46  MANUAL   OF    SIGNALS. 

3  may  be    "Keep  that  range;  shots  striking  well." 
"  The  shots  ai*e  killing  our  own  men." 
"  Anchor  further  in  shore." 
"  Shell  between  4th  and  5th  traverses." 
"  We  have  carried  the  4th  traverse." 
"  Send  sailors  to  left  and  rear." 
"Withdraw  the  marines;  the   sea  wall  is 

too  hisrh." 
"  Bring  up  a  battery  of  howitzers." 
"  Fire  rapidly  by  compass  S.  S.  W." 
"  We  have  carried  the  works  ;  cease  firing." 

It  is  evident  that  any  number  of  these,  or  of  other  mes- 
sages, may  be  indicated  by  showing  not  more  than  three 
sorts  of  fla^s  or  signals  in  different  arrangements.  The 
extent  to  which  representations  can,  in  this  way,  be  carried, 
may  be  estimated  from  the  fact,  that  with  six  sorts  of  flags, 
or  lights,  or  motions,  there  can  be  made,  showing  in  no 
signal  more  than  six  symbols,  fifty-five  thousand,  nine  hun- 
dred and  eighty-six  signals.  Thus  there  can  be  six  signals 
made,  showing  a  single  light  for  each  ;  thirty-six  signals, 
showing  two  lights  for  each  ;  two  hundred  and  sixteen  sig- 
nals, showing  thi-ee  lights  for  each,  one  thousand,  two 
hundred  and  ninety-six  signals,  showing  four  lights  for 
each  ;  seven  thousand,  seven  hundred  and  seventy-six  sig- 
nals, showing  five  lights  for  each ;  forty-six  thousand, 
six  hundred  and  fifty-six  signals,  showing  six  lights  for 
each. 

In  drawing  a  code  for  all  these  signals,  it  is  plain  no 
more  than  six  distinct  letters,  or  six  distinct  figures  (six 
different  symbols),  one  to  stand  for  each  light,  need  be 
used. 

It  is  a  general  principle,  in  forming  codes  of  signals,  that 
the  indices  should  be  as  brief  as  possible;  thus  the  number 
of  elements  to  be  used  being  given,  it  should  be  determined 


M  WUAL   OF   SIGNALS. 


17 


by  computation  beforehand,  how  many,  and  what  are  the 
shortest  combinations  that  can  lie  used;  and  to  these  should 
be  attached  the  meanings  which  arc  to  form  the  code. 
Thus,  if  there  are  five  elements  to  be  used,  we  can  designate 
these  by  numerals,  l,  2,  3,  4,  5,  or  by  the  letters  a,  b,  c,  d,  > . 
Now  we  know  by  the  rules  of  permutations,  combina- 
tions, or  arrangements  how  many  indices  of  two,  three,  <>r 
more  places  we  can  form  with  these  figures  or  letters.  We 
write  down,  of  the  shortest  of  these,  as  many  as  we  may 
need;  these  are  our  indices.  We  place  opposite  each  index 
whatever  sentence  we  may  wish  to  indicate  by  it,  and  so  a 
code  is  formed.  It  is  of  course  immaterial  whether  each 
letter  orfigure  is  indicated,  when  we  come  to  signalize  these 
indices  by  a  flag,  a  colored  flame,  a  sign,  a  motion,  flash, 
sound,  or  even  by  measured  intervals  of  silence — the  mean- 
ings will  be  equally  conveyed. 


EXAMPLE   OF  A  NAVAL   CODE. 


DO 

56 

57 


58 


59 
60 

r.l 

62 
63 
64 
65 
66 
67 
68 


Will  be  at  single  anchor 

Are  you  going  to  anchor  ? 

Shall  endeavor  to  anchor 
in  the  hay,  in  view,  or 
the  one  pointed  out 

Propose-s  to  anchor,  if  the 
wind  will  allow  of  get- 
ting into  a  tolerable 
berth,  and  the  bottom  is 
satisfactory 

Can  you  spare  an  anchor? 

Only"  one  anchor  left 

When  you,  lie,  or  they  are 
anchored 

Lost  an  anchor 

No  anchor  left 

In  want  of  an  anchor 

Have  crept  lor  my  anchor 

Anchor  stock-s 

Sheet  anchor-s 

Bower  anchor-s 


69 

Stream  anchor-s 

70 

Kedge  anchor-s 

71 

Prepare  to  anchor 

72 

Anchor  immediately 

73 

Anchor  as  soon  as  conve- 

nient 

74 

Anchor  on  bearing  pointed 

out 

75 

Anchor  in  line  of  battle 

7G 

Anchor  in  order  of  sailing 

77 

Anchor  in  line  abreast 

78 

Anchor  in  two  columns 

79 

Anchor  in  three  columns 

80 

Anchor   as  most    conveni- 

ent to  lire  at  a  mark 

81 

Anchor  in  two  lines,  boats 

with   guns  in    advance, 

and  in  close  order 

82 

Anchor  close  in  >hore 

83 

Anchor  in  close  order 

84 

Anchor  in  open  order 

48 


MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS. 


85 

I  shall  anchor 

122 

86 

Shall  I  anchor? 

123 

87 

Creep  for  anchor 

124 

88 

Weigh  anchor 

125 

89 

Anchorage  is  safe,  or  good 

anchorage  for  ships 

126 

90 

Anchorage  is  unsafe 

91 

Cut  out,  and  bring  off  ves- 

127 

sels  at  the  anchorage 

128 

92 

Destroy  vessels  at  the  an- 
chorage 

93  Arsenal-s 

129 

94 

Destroy  the  arsenal 

130 

95 

Assist-s-ed-ing-ance-t-s 

131 

98 

Can  you  assist '? 

132 

97 

Can  you  assist  me  with  ? 

98 

Have,  or  has,  given  every 

133 

assistance 

134 

99 

If  I  have  immediate  assist- 

135 

ance 

136 

100 

Do  not,  or  did  not,  require 
any  assistance 

137 

101 

Require-s  the  assistance  of 

138 

102 

Require-s    immediate    as- 

sistance 

139 

103 

Do  you  require  assistance  ? 

101 

Will  you  give  any  assist- 
ance ? 

140 

105 

Cannot  assist 

141 

108 

Should  you    require    any 

142 

assistance 

143 

107 

What  assistance  do  you 

144 

require  ? 

145 

108 

Give  every  assistance  to 

146 

109 

Give  immediate  assistance 

147 

to 

148 

110 

With  the  assistance  of 

149 

111 

Without  any  assistance 

150 

112 

Assist  disabled  vessels,  or 

151 

boats 

152 

113 

Attack-s-ed-ing 

153 

114 

Shall  I  attack  ? 

154 

115 

Begin  the  attack 

155 

116 

Postpone  the  attack 

156 

117 

Mean  to  attack  the  enemy 

157 

as  soon  as  possible 

158 

118 

Have,   or    has,    been    at- 

159 

tacked  by 

160 

119 

Cannot  be  attacked 

120 

Shall,  or  will  you  attack? 

121 

To  be  attacked 

Attack  has  commenced 
Baggage 

Send  baggage  to  the  rear 
Pack  up  baggage  ready  to 

retreat 
Leave  heavy  baggage  on 

board 
Barge-s 

Send  the  barge 
Note. — Numeral  signal  will 
show  which 

Recall  the  barge 
Battery-ies 
Are  there  any  batteries  ? 
What  state  do  the  batter- 
ies appear  to  be  in  ? 
There  are  batteries 
There  are  no  batteries 
The  battery-ies  can  be 
Under  the  battery-ies 
Keep    possession    of    the 

battery-ies 
The  enemy's  batteries  are 

destroyed 
Can  you  keep  possession 

of  the  battery-ies  ? 
The  enemy  is  throwing  up 
batteries 
Bayonet-s 
Charge  bayonets 
I  am  in  need  of  bayonets 
I  can  spare  bayonets 
I  have  no  bayonets 
Send  me  bayonets 
Beam-s 

On  the  beam 
Before  the  beam 
Abaft  the  beam 
Keep  on  weather  beam 
Keep  on  lee  beam 
Bear-s-ing-borne-bearer-s 
How  did  she,  or  it,  bear  ? 
She,  or  it,  then  bore 
Bearings  and  distance 
Bear  up  together 
Bear  up  in  succession 
Bear  up 

Bear  up  together,  and 
preserve  the  starboard 
line  of  bearing,  steering 
lh«  course  indicated 


MANUAL   OF    BIGNALS. 


I" 


10 1 


162 
163 


164 


165 


166 
167 


168 
169 
170 
171 
172 
173 


174 
175 
176 

177 
178 
17!) 


Bear     up     together,    ami 

preserve    the    port  line 

of  bearing,  steering  the 

course  indicated 

Form    starboard    line    of 

bearing 
Form  port  line  of  bearing 
Note. — By  the  line  of  bear- 
ing is  meant  that  the  ships, 
or  boats,  are  to  bear  from 
each  other  on  the  point  of 
the  compass  on  which  they 
would  sail  when  on  a  wind, 
if  formed  in  a  line  ahead, 
on  the  starboard  or  port 
tack. 

Ranged    on    die    line    of 
bearing,    but    ship     too 
much  to  starboard 
Hanged    on     the    line    of 
bearing,    but    ship     too 
much  to  port 
Blockade-s-d-ing 
Declared     in    a    state    of 

blockade 
Still  continues  in  a  state  of 

blockade 
The  blockade  is  taken  off 
Blockade  the  entrance  of 
Is,  or  are,  blockading 
Has  broken  the  blockade 
Board-s-ed-ing 
Iu  want  of  boarding  pis- 
tols 
In  want  of  boarding  pikes 
Light-house  board 
Got  on  board 
Have,  or  has,  on  board 
Is  not  on  board 
(  nine  on  board 


180 

181 
l8a 

is:; 


184 

185 
186 

187 

188 
189 
190 
191 
192 
193 
194 
195 
196 
197 
198 
199 
200 
201 
202 

203 

204 
205 

206 

207 

'.'OS 


Return  on  board 

Remain  on  board 

What    vessels     have    you 
boarded  ? 

Bring    master    on     board 
with  papers 

Quit     immediately,     and 
come  on  board 

Embark,     and     come     on 
board 

Bring  boat,   or   vessel,   on 
board 

Board  the  vessel,  or  Ni- 
seis, pointed  out 

Prepare  to  board 
Boat-s-ing 

Will  send  a  boat 

Cannot  send  a  boat 

Send  me  a  boa! 

Boat  is  on  shore 

Have,  or  has,  lost  a  boat 

Send  boat-s  at 

Search  that  boat 

In  your  boat 

In  my  boat 

How  many  boats  ? 

Guard-boat-s 

Boat's  crc\v-s 

Boats  to  assemble  on  the 
off  side 

Boats  to  assemble  on   tie' 
near  side 

Gunboats  to 

Gunboats  to  go  in  shore 
and  cover  the  troops 

Gunboats  to  be  in   readi- 
ness for 

Flat-boats  to  assisl  in 

Flat-boats  to  be  on  shore 
by 


NAVAL  SIGNALS. 


The  following  brief  description  of  the  United  Stales  naval 
codes  of  signals,  is  based  tipon  information  received  from 
Rear  Admiral  Charles  H.  Davis,  V.  S.  NT., the  former  chief 

3 


50  MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS. 

of  the  Naval  Bureau  of  Navigation,  and  from  Commodore 
Thornton  A.  Jenkins,  U.  S.  N.,  the  present  chief  of  the 
Bureau.  The  values  and  colors  of  the  Signal  Flags  change 
frequently  and  are  arbitrary. 

The  Signal  System  of  the  United  States  Navy  em- 
braces a  Signal  Code  and  a  Telegraphic  Dictionary,  each 
being  used  through  the  medium  of  signal  numbers,  as  the 
ciphers,  or  distinctive  representatives  of  signal  communica- 
tions. Both  the  Code  and  Telegraphic  Dictionary  are 
alphabetically  arranged. 

The  Signal  Code. 

The  Signal  Code  is  a  collection  of  Signals  completely  ex- 
pressed in  connection  with  their  representative  ciphers,  or 
signal  numbers,  and  comprises  commands  of  evolution  in 
naval  tactics,  and  various  orders,  instructions,  questions,  an- 
swers, phrases,  etc.,  of  most  frequent  use  in  the  naval  ser- 
vice. It  also  embraces  the  names  and  corresponding  signal 
numbers  of  all  vessels  on  the  Navy  List  of  the  United 
States. 

Signal  communications  are  effected  by  showing,  in  the 
authorized  symbolic  form,  the  signal  numbers  which  respect- 
ively represent  the  signals  to  be  made. 

The  Telegraphic  Dictionary. 

The  Telegraphic  Dictionary  is  an  auxiliary  to  the  Code 
of  Signals  in  extending  the  range  of  signal  correspondence. 
It  consists  of  an  Alphabet  and  Vocabulary,  with  a  corre- 
•  sponding  series  of  signal  numbers. 

Signal  communications  are  made  through  the  medium  of 
the  Telegraphic  Dictionary  in  two  ways :  first,  by  composing 
the  desired  communication  from  words  in  the  vocabulary, 
the  words  being  separately  shown  in   successive  signals ; 


MANUAL  OF   SIGNALS.  51 

secondly,  by  composition  from  words  not  in  the  vocabulary, 
the  communication  being  spelled  out  in  successive  Bignals 
of  the  letters  of  which  the  words  are  composed.  A  com- 
munication may  also  be  made  partly  from  the  alphabet  and 
partly  from  the  vocabulary! 

The  Commeri  i.w.  Code. 

Besides  the  Navy  Code,  there  are  several  well-known 
codes  of  signals  recognized  by  the  commercial  marine  of 
different  nations,  which  it  is  expedient  to  notice  in  this 
place;  because  it  is  necessary  to  make  use  of  some  one  of 
these  codes  for  the  purpose  of  signal  communication  be- 
tween vessels  of  the  navy  and  commercial  vessels. 

Of  these,  the  most  prominent  are,  "The  Universal  Code," 
of  the  late  Captain  Marryatt,  of  the  royal  (English)  navy; 
"The  Code  International,"  of  Captain  Reynold,  of  Paris; 
and  "The  Commercial  Code,"  of  the  British  Board  of 
Trade.  The  first  and  second  codes  use  signal  numbers  as 
ciphers  of  signal  communication  ;  while  the  third,  or  Com- 
mercial Code,  uses  signal  letters,  permuted  in  sets  of  two, 
three,  and  four  each,  for  the  same  purpose. 

The  Commercial  Code,  being  largely  used  by  American 
and  British  merchantmen,  is,  by  a  general  order  of  the  Navy 
Department,  issued  to  all  vessels  of  the  United  States  navy, 
together  with  the  necessary  signal  flags  as  a  means  of  facili- 
tating communication  between  the  latter  and  the  former. 

The  Commercial  Code,  in  addition  to  General  Signals, 
Alphabet,  Vocabulary,  Geographical  Names,  etc.,  contains, 
in  a  separate  volume,  an  English  and  American  Marine  List 
of  both  war  and  commercial  vessels. 


52  MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS. 


METHODS  OF  SYMBOLIZING  SIGNAL  NUMBERS. 

The  Signal  Numbers,  in  both  the  Navy  Code  and  Tele- 
graphic Dictionary,  commence  with  the  number  10,  and 
terminate,  the  former  in  four  figure  numbers,  the  latter  in 
five  fi oj ure  numbers. 

For  symbolizing  the  signal  numbers,  two  methods  for 
general  use  are  authorized  by  the  Navy  Department.  These 
are :  first,  the  old  method  of  Colored  Flag  and  Light  Sig- 
nals, recently  improved  in  certain  respects;  and,  secondly, 
the  new  method  of  Chronosemic  Signals.  The  first  is  de- 
signed for  ordinary  use,  during  day  or  night,  in  the  absence 
of  fog  ;  and  the  second  is  designed  for  use,  during  day  or 
night,  in  the  presence  of  fog.  The  latter,  however,  being 
adapted  to  general  use,  with  the  aid  of  the  simplest  ap- 
paratus, may  be  employed  whenever  it  shall  be  deemed 
expedient. 


NAVY  COLORED   SIGNALS. 
Figure   Symbols. 

The  Colored  Signals  of  the  Navy  are  based  upon  the  use 
of  colored  flags  during  the  day,  and  colored  lights  during 
the  nitiht. 

Each  system  comprises  ten  distinct  figure-symbols  for  the 
respective  elemental  figures, 

0,  1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  7,  8,  9; 

and,  in  addition,  certain  auxiliary  symbols,  of  use  in  signal 
operations. 

The  day  figure-symbols  consist  of  ten  rectangular  flags  of 
uniform  size.  These  flags  exhibit  the  single  colors,  white, 
red,  blue,  respectively ;    double  combinations  of  the  same 


PLATK    II 

SIGNAL    FLAGS  A:  LIGHTS 


FLAGS 


COSTON 


FLAGS 


COSTON 
LIGHTS 


p"3|  H 


zz  z 


B 


Cornet 


I    Guard  r  lav 


To   be    carried 
at  the 

fore  roya] 

Mast   head 


MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS.  53 

colors,  in  triangular  halves,  white-red^  red-blue^  blupwhiU  : 

triple  combinations  of  the  same  colors,  in  equal  horizontal 
divisions,  white-red-white,  redwhitwi  d,  bltu  -whit*  -blut  ;  and 
a  double  combination,  consisting  of  a  ichite  field,  bearing  a 
blue  cross.     (Plate  II). 

The  night  figure-symbols  are  colored  flames  or  lanterns, 
and  show  the  single  colors,  white,  red,  green;  double  con- 
secutive colors,  white-red,  red-green,  green-ichite  ;  triple  con- 
secutive colors,  white-red-white,  red-iohite-red,  green-w/dt,- 
green,  respectively;  and  the  double  consecutive  colors, 
white-green.     (Plate  II). 

It  should  be  noted  that,  in  these  symbols,  the  green 
color  of  a  light  is  regarded  as  the  counterpart  of  the  blue 
color  of  a  flag ;  and,  with  this  qualification,  it  will  be  ob- 
served that  the  same  order  of  succession  of  the  Bimple 
colors,  in  both  flags  and  light,  and  the  same  compound 
arrangement  in  the  flags,  and  successive  illumination  in  the 
lights,  correspond  to  the  same  figures  in  the  entire  series, 
from  0  to  9  inclusive. 


Signal  Numbers. 

A  Signed  Number  is  represented,  during  the  day,  by 
hoisting,  in  the  required  order,  the  flag  symbols  which  show 
the  several  figures  of  the  number,  reading  from  above 
downward;  and,  during  the  night,  by  exhibiting  in  rapid 
succession,  the  light  symbols  which  show  the  several  fig- 
ures of  the  number  in  their  natural  order. 

Signal  numbers  which  contain  one  or  more  repetitions  of 
the  same  figure,  if  made  by  flags  during  the  day,  require 
the  use  of  repeaters.  These  are  colored  triangular  flags, 
and  are  distinguished  as  the  first,  second,  and  third  re- 
peaters.     (Plate  III.) 

The  first  repeater  shows  a  red  field  with  a  white  rect- 
angle at  the  base,  and  is  used  to  repeat  the  lirst  figure; 


54  MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS. 

the  second  repeater  shows  a  blue  field  with  a  white  rect- 
angle at  the  base,  and  is  used  to  repeat  the  second  figure  ; 
and  the  third  repeater  shows  a  white  field  with  a  blue 
rectangle  at  the  base,  and  is  used  to  repeat  the  third  figure. 
(Plate  IIL) 

The  following  examples  illustrate  the  use  of  repeaters  in 
showing  signal  numbers : 

Numbers.  Symbols. 

2029 2.  0.  Rx.  9  ; 

1335 1.  3.  R2.  5  ; 

5644 5.  6.  4.  R3; 

7505 7.  5.  0.  R„  ; 

6666 6.  Rv  Ra.  R3 ; 

22226 2.  Rv  R2.  R3.  6  ; 

in  which  P,  with  the  proper  subscript,  represents  the  re- 
peater to  be  used  in  such  cases. 

Auxiliary  Symbols. 

The  auxiliary  symbols,  which  are  used  in  connection 
with  the  figure  symbols,  are  five  in  number,  under  the 
following  names:  Preparatory,  Answering,  Interrogatory, 
Numeral,  and  Cornet. 

The  Preparatory,  for  day  use,  is  a  triangular  flag,  with 
a  triple  arrangement  of  colors,  blue-white-blue,  in  equal 
lengths ;  for  night  use,  it  is  a  light  of  a  single  color,  white. 

The  Ansicering,  for  day  use,  is  a  triangular  flag,  with  a 
triple  arrangement  of  colors,  tchite-red-blue,  in  equal 
lengths ;  for  night  use,  it  is  a  light  of  triple  consecutive 
colors,  vh ite-red-green. 

The  Interrogatory,  for  day  use,  is  a  triangular  flag,  with 
a  triple  arrangement  of  colors,  wh ite-blue-white,  in  equal 
lengths ;  for  night  use,  it  is  a  light  of  triple  consecutive 
colors,  wh  if i  -green-wh.  ite. 


PLATE    III 

REPEATERS. 


SIGNAL    PENDANTS 


An  severing 


COSTON    LIGHTS 


Interrogatory 


PP 


M 


MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS. 


i.i 


The  Numeral,  for  day  use,  is  a  triangular  flag,  of  the 

single  color,  red;   for  night  use,  it   is  a   lighl   of  double 
consecutive  colors,  green-red.     (Plate  III.) 

The  Cornet,  for  day  use,  is  a  rectangular  flag,  of  two 
colors,  white-red, in  alternate  right-angled  quarter  sections; 
for  night  use,  it  is  a  rocket.     (Plate  II.) 

General  Instructions. 

The  flags  will  be  made  of  the  best  quality  of  bunting,  in 
material,  and  in  brilliancy  and  fastness  of  colors.  'Flic  pro- 
portions of  the  flags,  as  well  as  their  absolute  dimensions, 
which  are  variable  for  different  classes  of  vessels,  will  con- 
form to  the  Navy  Regulations. 

The  light  symbols  will  consist  of  the  colored  flames 
known  as  .the  "  Coston  Night  Signals,"  or  of  lanterns  fitted 
with  suitably  arranged  colored  glasses. 

Each  Coston  signal  of  a  single  color,  for  example,  for  the 
•  figures  0,  1,2,  burns  14  seconds;  each  symbol  of  double 
colors,  as  3,  4,  5,  9,  continues  28  seconds  ;  and  each  symbol 
of  triple  colors,  as  o,  7,  8,  continues  42  seconds. 

(are  will  be  observed,  by  the  person  appointed  to  ob- 
serve distant  signals,  to  avoid,  as  much  as  possible,  looking 
at  the  brilliant  flames  of  the  Coston  signals  burning  near 
him,  in  order  not  to  injure  his  perception  of  the  different 
colors  of  the  distant  signals. 

The  example  of  a  Naval  Code,  on  a  preceding  page, 
illustrates  the  great  variety  of  messages  that  may  be  ar- 
ranged for  codes  of  this  kind.  (See  page  47.)  The  values 
and  colors  of  Naval  Signal  Flags  and  Lights  are  changed 
constantly  ;  and  those  here  given  are  shown  for  illustration 
only. 


56  MANUAL  OF   SIGNALS. 


GENERAL   APPLICATIONS. 

It  is  difficult  to  realize,  without  reflection  and  the  illus- 
t rations  of  actual  example,  that  on  the  simple  rules  just 
given,  must  have  been  based,  from  the  beginning  of  the 
world,  all  signal  systems  of  whatever  character;  and  that, 
by  the  simplest  and  easiest  modes,  following  these  rules, 
intelligible  communication  may  be  had  by  devices  abso- 
lutely infinite  in  number,  and  plans  extending  in  their  ap- 
plication to  every  perception  of  which  human  sense  is 
capable,  and  to  every  thing  in  existence  to  which  attention 
can  be  directed.  There  is  no  thing,  or  sight,  or  sound,  or 
motion,  or  taste,  or  odor,  perception,  sensation,  or  indica- 
tion, but  by  which  or  through  which  ideas  and  meanings 
may  be  intelligibly  transmitted,  and  which  may  thus  be 
used  for  signal  communication.  Says  Chatfield,  "  It 
seems,  at  first  sight,  very  singular  that  a  blind  child  should 
be  taught  to  read ;  but  observe  what  the  common  process 
is  with  every  child  :  a  child  sees  certain  marks  upon  a  plain 
piece  of  paper,  which  he  is  taught  to  call  a,  b,  c  ;  but  if  you 
were  to  raise  certain  marks  in  relief  upon  pasteboard,  as  you 
may  of  course  do,  and  teach  a  blind  child  to  call  these  marks 
which  he  felt  a,  b,  c,  a  blind  child  would  as  easily  learn  his 
alphabet  by  his  fingers  as  another  would  do  by  his  eyes, 
and  mio-ht  or>  on  feeling  through  Homer  or  Virgil  as  we 
do  by  persevering  in  looking  at  the  book.  '  Just  in  the 
same  manner,'  says  Sydxey  Smith,  '  I  should  not  be  sur- 
prised if  the  alphabet  could  be  taught  by  a  series  of  well- 
contrived  flavors ;  and  we  may  live  to  see  the  day  when 
men  may  be  taught  to  smell  out  their  learning,  and  when 
a  fine  scenting-day  shall  be  (what  it  certainly  is  not  at 
present)  considered  as  a  day  peculiarly  favorable  to  study.'" 

Through  every  sense  there  may  be  received  or  caused 
different  sensations. 


MANUAL  OF  SIGNALS.  57 

Anv  number  of  these  different  sensations,  of  anv  Bense. 
may  be  taken  as  those  to  be  caused  or  to  he  understood  as 
the  elements  of  any  system  of  signals. 

If  these  are  now  produced  in  sequences  or  arrangements, 

following  the  principles  and  the  rules  of  signals  jusl  illus- 
trated, it  is  plain  there  may  be  devised  systems  of  signals 
for  any  sense;  the  signal  being  as  readily  understood,  and 
conveying  to  the  mind  the  same  meaning,  through  whate\  i  r 
sense  it  reaches  it. 

The  principles  of  signals  arc  immutable.  The  applica- 
tions of  these  principles  are  endless.  To  treat  of  the  modes 
of  making  signals,  is  only  to  describe  the  infinite  devices  in 
which  human  ingenuity  exhausts  itself  to  best  make  these 
applications.  Novelty  as  to  the  principles  is  impossible. 
There  is  scope  for  invention  and  discovery  only  as  to  the 
ingenious  application  of  principles  well  known  for  centuries, 
and  the  mechanical  devices  to  make  those  applications  most 
available. 

The  object  of  all  signalling  is,  to  convey  ideas  ;  or  to 
converse  at  a  distance.  Telegraphing,  in  its  widest  sig- 
nification, is  only  conversing  by  a  sign-language.  Signal- 
ling is  telegraphing.  Language  itself  is  a  conventional 
system  of  signals  which,  by  long  practice,  we  use  skilfully. 
Signalling,  as  is  generally  understood  by  the  term,  has  been 
erroneously  limited  to  preconcerted  sentences;  because  the 
means  employed  were  ineffective  to  rapidly  transmit  all  the 
phrases  of  language.  The  perfection  of  signalling  or  tele- 
graphing, it  to  be  able  to  transmit  any  terms  of  any  lan- 
guage with  precision  and  dispatch  without  preconcerted 
codes. 

To  illustrate  the  many  means  which  can  be  used  for  sig- 
nals, the  following  examples  are  given: 

3* 


58  MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS. 

Significations  by  Positions  (plate  iv.) 

If  in  Fig.  1  the  arm  a  is  inclined  obliquely  downward  and 
on  the  right  of  the  upright  u,  as  at  a,  this  position  may  be 
assumed  as  a  primary  signal  or  an  element. 

The  arm  placed  horizontally  on  the  same  side  of  the  up- 
right, as  at  b,  (Fig.  2),  is  another  signal. 

The  arm  inclined  obliquely  upward,  and  on  the  same  side 
of  the  upright,  as  at  c,  (Fig.  3),  is  a  third  signal;  and  so  on, 
through  all  the  different  and  the  distinct  positions  d,  e,f:  (/, 
in  which  the  arm  can  be  placed,  (Fig.  4). 

Let  the  signals  be  designated  by  figure-symbols,  as  by  1, 
2,  3,  etc.,  and  it  is  evident  the  given  rules  will  determine 
the  number  of  indications  which  can  be  made. 

Thus  the  positions  "1,  2,"  made  together,  one  after  the 
other,  would  be  one  signal.  The  positions  "  1,  3,  2,"  a  dif- 
ferent signal.  The  positions  "2,  1,"  a  third  signal.  If  now, 
"1  2,"  stands  for  A,  "1  3  2"  for  R,  and  "2  1"  for  E,  these 
three  signals,  made  in  this  order,  would  signify  the  word 
ARE.  It  is  plain,  that  with  any  twenty-six  signals  made 
after  this  fashion,  by  combining  the  three  positions,  we 
could  make  all  the  letters  of  the  alphabet. 

To  make  signals  by  positions,  there  is  needed  one  fixed 
position,  to  which  all  the  others  may  be  relative,  as  the 
head  of  the  upright  in  this  case,  and  some  mode  of  indi- 
cating what  signals  are  to  be  taken  together ;  as  in  this 
case  a  swing  of  the  arm  (a),  to  be  made  at  the  end  of  each 
combination  ;  or  letting  it  start  from  the  position  r,  (Fig. 
4),  at  the  beginning  of  each  combination  signal,  and  return 
and  rest  in  that  position  at  the  close  of  each  signal ;  or  any 
other  agreed  sign  may  be  used.  This  signal  has  been  be- 
fore mentioned  as  the  "  pause-signal."  Upon  plans  such 
as  these,  more  elaborated,  most  semaphores  are  devised. 

Now  the  positions  may  be  any  positions  of  any  of  the 
most  common  things,  and  they  may  be  exhibited  anvwhere. 


FLATF    IV 


•• 


i. 


I 


, 


R 


Fig.4.r 


l^Pgs.One  orT    2*POs.lwo  or "2"  3F*Fos/three" or  3'      Pos.r  orrest&Fos 

a./b.e.d.e.f.tf. 


Fie-*'. 


MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS.  59 

Of  course  the  hand  and  arm  of  a  man,  standing  upright, 
could  be  used  just  as  well  as  the  machine  above  described. 

Or,  to  illustrate  further,  we  can  place  a  number  of  books 
or  miscellaneous  articles,  lying  in  different  positions,  as 
relative  to  some  central  book  on  the  table,  (Plate  IV.,  Fig. 
5).     Now  it'  the  different  books  are  designated  by  numbers, 

as  -k  J,"  "2,"  "  3,"  etc.,  touching  each  indicates  it  as  a  sig- 
nal ;  and  touching  the  central  book  shows  the  beginning  or 
end  of  a  signal — that  is,  the  pause-signal.  Then,  if  we 
touch  book  "  1  "  and  "  2  "  (the  first  and  second),  and  then 
the  centre  book  as  a  signal  ;  then  the  first  and  third  and 
second,  or  "  1"  and  "  3"  and  "  2,"  and  then  the  centre, 
and  then  the  second  and  first,  "  2"  and  "  1,"  and  then  the 
centre  as  other  signals,  thus  touching  the  centre  between 
each  combination  signal,  we  make  three  signals  ;  and,  as 
before,  the  letters  A,  R,  E,  the  word  "  ARE." 

Of  course  by  further  combinations,  as  "  3  2,"  "  1  2,"  etc., 
all  the  letters  of  the  alphabet  could  be  represented.  We 
can  vary  this  experiment  by  endless  changes  of  the  objects 
we  use,  or  of  their  number,  or  of  the  positions  assumed,  and 
by  any  of  them  continue  to  send  intelligible  messages. 

Significations  by  Motions. 

If  a  handkerchief  is  held  in  the  hand,  at  the  height  of 
the  face,  and  is  thence  waved  to  the  right,  and  to  the  left, 
and  up,  and  down — always  returning  to  the  face  at  the  end 
of  each  motion — four  distinct  motions  are  made.  (Plate 
IV.,  Fig.  6.)  These  can  be  designated  by  figures,  as  1,  2, 
3,  4,  and  can  be  made  conjoined  by  twos  or  threes  or  fours 
as  signals;  those  motions,  which  are  to  be  read  together 
as  signals,  being  made  to  follow  each  other  so  rapidly  that 
there  shall  seem  to  be  no  rest  between  them  ;  the  handker- 
chief held  resting  at  the  face,  indicating  the  completion  of 
a  signal,  or  being  a  pause-signal.     Thus,  if  the  motion  to 


GO  MANUAL   OF    SIGNALS. 

the  right  is  known  as  "  one,"  the  left  as  "  two,"  the  motion 
above  the  head  as  "  three,"  and  the  motion  down  as  "  four," 
if  we  now  make  three  signals,  as  "  one — two,"  "  one — three 
— two,"  "  two — one,"  the  handkerchief  resting  at  the  face 
between  each  combination  signal,  these  are  as  before  the 
letters  A,  R,  E.  As  in  the  former  instance,  other  combi- 
nations of  these  motions  may  represent  the  other  letters  of 
the  alphabet.  It  does  not  need  demonstration  that  any 
other  motions  whatever,  or  a  greater  or  less  number,  taken 
together,  than  in  these  instances  might  be  used  to  designate 
letters  by  signals,  as  simple  or  as  complex  as  we  choose  to 
make  them. 

Significations  by  Sounds. 

If  we  can  make  with  a  bell  or  drum,  by  varying  the 
course  of  the  stroke,  or  in  any  way,  two  or  three  or  more 
different  sounds,  as  a  high,  a  low,  and  a  soft  sound,  we  can 
designate  these  as  "  one"  and  "  two"  and  "  three." 

It  is  easy  to  understand  by  preceding  illustrations  how, 
if  we  sound  "  one — two,"  a  pause,  "  one — three — two,"  a 
pause,  "two — one,"  and  cease,  we  indicate  the  letters  A,  R, 
E  ;  and  how,  by  further  combinations  of  these  sounds,  there 
may  be  given  a  particular  signal  for  each  letter  of  the  alpha- 
bet. Of  course  sounds  of  any  kind  may  be  used,  as  notes 
of  bugles,  of  pianos,  or  the  tapping  of  a  finger  on  differently 
sounding  articles  on  a  table,  whistling,  etc.  It  makes  no 
difference,  in  the  example,  what  may  be  the  force  of  the 
Bounds,  or  the  number  used;  whether  they  are  the  reports 
of  differently  charged  cannon,  or  the  tickings  of  tele- 
graphic instruments.  For  illustration,  any  person  can  send 
messages  by  combinations  of  the  two  sounds  made  by  tap- 
ping on  a  book  "one,"  and  on  a  candlestick  "two,"  the 
alphabet  constructed,  say  as  follows:  "two — one"  is  "A;" 
"  one — two — one"  is  "  B  ;"  "  one — one — two"  is  "  C  ;"  and 
so  on,  combining  ones  and  twos.     Some  electric  telegraphs 


MANUAL  OF   SIGNALS.  Gl 

work  in  this  way.  Messages  may  be  sent  with  three  Bounds, 
as  taps  on  a  candlestick,  "one;"  on  a  book,  "two;"  and  <>u 
a  plate,  "three;"  as  "one— two"  is  "  A  ;"  one — three — 
two" is  "B;"  "two— one" is" C;"  and  thus  on.  The  illus- 
tration may  he  continued,  using  any  number  of  differentl 
sounds,  making  alphabets  in  which  the  letters  are  desig- 
nated by  four  sounds,  or  five  sounds,  etc. 

Significations  by  Touch. 

We  can  cause  any  several  different  sensations  by  touch  : 
as,  by  touching  the  hand  with  a  rough  body  and  a  smooth ; 
with  a  sharp  point  or  a  dull;  or  by  a  long  pressure  and  a 
short ;  or  by  a  different  number  of  taps,  as  with  a  finger 
upon  the  hand.  Whatever  may  be  the  different  sensations 
caused,  they  can  be  designated  by  numbers.  The  process 
of  making  signals  by  touch,  is  as  before  described.  Thus 
the  rough  touch  may  be  known  as  "  one,"  and  the  smooth 
as  "two;"  these  sensations  caused  as  follows:  "  two — one" 
may  mean  "A;"  then  "one — two — one"  is  "B;"  "one — 
one— two"  is  "  C  ;"  and  thus  through  other  combinations  of 
one  and  two  through  all  the  alphabet. 

Or  one  finger  may  be  touched  to  indicate  "one;"  the 
next  finger  touched  be  "  two  ;"  the  third  be  "  three."  Then, 
with  the  combinations  of  one  and  two  and  three,  we  may 
make  any  signals. 

Or  four  fingers  may  be  touched,  and  these  signals  may  be 
of  all  the  arrangements  of  "one"  and  "two"  and  "three" 
and  "four."  It  is  evident  that,  continuing  the  experiment, 
every  kind  of  combination  may  be  made  and  read  by  touch. 

Significations  by  Taste. 

If  there  are  articles  of  different  tastes,  as  salt  ami  sugar 
and  mustard;  or  liquids,  as  brandy,  cider,  and  water,  these 
different  tastes  may  be  designated  as  "one"  and  "two"  ami 


G2  MANUAL    OF   SIGNALS. 

'•  three."  Now  if  any  two,  as  brandy  and  cider,  are  offered 
in  succession  to  the  taste,  they  make  signals  of  meaning. 
Thus,  "two— one"  is  "A;"  "  one— two— one"  is  "  B ;" 
"  one — one — two"  is  "  C  ;"  and  thus  an  alphabet.  Or  if  the 
three  are  taken,  then  the  similarly  tasted  signals  are  made 
bv  combinations  of  the  three  tastes ;  or  the  tastes  may  be 
increased  in  number,  and  furnish  signals  of  any  kind. 

Significations  by  Odors. 

If  there  are  three  perfumes,  as  that  of  the  rose,  the  violet, 
and  the  hyacinth,  these  can  constitute  the  designated  ele- 
ments, "  one"  "two"  "  three."  If  but  two  are  taken,  as  the 
rose,  "  one,"  and  the  violet,  "  two,"  and  the  perfume  of  the 
violet  and  then  of  the  rose  is  offered,  there  is  the  signal 
"  two — one,"  or  "  A  ;"  so  the  perfume  of  the  rose  followed  by 
violet  followed  by  rose  is  "  one — two — one,"  or  "  B  ;"  so 
the  perfume  of  rose  twice  presented  and  followed  by  violet 
is  "  one — one — two,"  or  "  C."  The  alphabet  of  perfumed 
signals  would  follow  in  the  variety  of  arrangements  of  these 
two  elements. 

Or  using  geranium,  rose,  violet,  and  hyacinth,  we  devise 
signals  with  the  arrangements  of  "  one,"  "two,"  "three," 
and  "four,"  or  of  four  elements;  so  multiplying  the  per- 
fumes and  their  combinations,  it  is  plain  any  signal  what- 
ever may  be  indicated  by  their  use. 

Significations  by  Colors. 

It  will  be  readily  recognized  how  colors,  as  red,  blue, 
yellow,  green,  black,  may  have  significance.  They  may  be 
designated  by  numbers,  as  one,  two,  three,  four,  five,  etc. ; 
and  then,  when  properly  represented,  show  all  the  signals 
that  arrangements  of  these  symbols  can  express.  Thus,  if 
two  are  used,  blue  followed  by  red,  and  shown  one  after 
the  other;  or  if  the  colors  are  in  flags,  one  shown  above  the 


PLATE  V. 

SIGNALS    BY   COLORS. 


te 


Fie  i 


Fig.  2. 


Fig.  3. 


Fig.4 


Blue-red-21        Red-blue-red-121     Red-red  nlue -112     Red  blue-yellow-123 


SIGNALS  BY  FORMS. 


Fig.  5. 

*A  2n    3o  *<C> 


Fig.  6. 


□  A       AaA       ■□  o  O 

Two-one-21      One  two  -one  -121         Two  three  -four-234 


Fi£7. 


Tv-o-one-21    One -two  one-121. 


Fig.  8 


LA*<       l>  V3 

One -foiir-14      Two-three-23 


Fig.  9. 


Positions    1.2.3.4 


MANUAL  OF   SIGNALS.  63 

other  (Plate  V,  Figs.  1,  2,  3,  4),  the  signal  "two-  one"  is 
made,  or  A;  so  "one — two — one,''  or  "red,  blue,  red,"  indi- 
cates B  ;  and  "one — one — two,"  or  "red,  red,  blue,"  ia  (': 
so,  using  red,  blue,  and  yellow,  are  made  Bignala  of  three 
elements  with  these  colors,  as  in  preceding  examples.  <  >r, 
increasing  the  number  of  colors,  signals  of  any  combination 
of  colors  may  be  made.  The  signals  by  colors  may  be  per- 
manent, as  when  colored  flags  are  exhibited,  or  any  colored 
objects  are  arranged  and  kept  in  view  to  make  the  signal  ; 
or  they  may  be  transient,  as  when  flashes  of  colored  lights 
make  the  signals  ;  or  the  colored  flames  of  pyrotechnic  com- 
positions are  used.  It  is  manifest  that,  however  the  colors 
may  be  displayed,  their  use,  and  the  principles  upon  which 
they  must  be  used,  remain  the  same. 

Significations  by  Forms. 

Plate  V,  Figs.  5,  6,  7. — If  there  are  different  forms,  as  tin- 
triangle,  the  square,  the  circle,  the  diamond,  these  may  be 
made  significant :  they  may  be  designated  as  "  one,"  "  t  w<  >," 
"three,"  and  "four,"  etc.,  and  then  exhibited  in  proper 
combination  and  sequence,  indicate  any  combination  or  ar- 
rangement of  these  elements:  so  if  the  triangle  is  known  as 
"  one,"  and  the  square  as  "  two,"  a  square  and  a  triangle 
displayed,  as  with  flags  one  above  the  other  reading  from 
above  downward,  or  side  by  side  reading  from  left  to  right, 
would  be  "  two — one,"  or  "A."  A  triangle,  a  square,  and 
a  triangle  similarly  displayed,  would  be  "one — two — one,'' 
"121,"  or  "B;"  a  square,  circle,  and  diamond,  "two — 
three — four,"  "  234;"  and  so  for  any  desired  Q£ 

Significations  by  Positions  of  Foems. 

A  triangular  form  may  be  exhibited  in  different  positions 
relatively  to  some  position  fixed,  a-  with  the  apex   or   point 


64  MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS. 

up,  the  point  down,  the  point  on  the  right,  the  point  on  the 
left,  etc. 

To  these  different  positions  of  the  form,  significance  can 
be  given.  They  may  be  known  as  "  one,"  "two,"  "  three," 
and  "  four,"  etc.,  and  when  exhibited  as  by  preceding  plans 
have  meaning.  (Plate  V,  Figs.  8,  9.)  Positions,  forms, 
colors,  positions  of  forms,  etc.,  have,  of  course,  equal  mean- 
ing, whether  exhibited  as  aerial  signals,  or  drawn  as  sym- 
bols on  paper. 

These  illustrations  might  be  extended  to  infinity.  They 
have  been  given  to  show,  in  a  plain  way,  how  endless  are 
the  applications  of  the  principles  of  signals,  and  how  simple 
is  the  study  of  the  subject ;  to  establish,  by  example  so 
practicable  as  to  be  interesting  that,  for  every  sense,  there 
are  signals,  and  through  every  sense,  we  can  converse,  in  a 
language  fitted  for  that  sense,  as  intelligibly  as  in  that  to 
which  our  lips  give  utterance.  The  common  illustrative 
examples  here  given,  should  be  practised.  No  signalist 
should  believe  that  he  comprehends  the  principles  of  signals, 
and  the  endless  modes  of  their  possible  application,  until  he 
has  himself  devised  alphabetic  signals  for  each  sense,  and 
with  these  signals,  has  sent  and  received,  using  that  sense 
alone,  understandable  messages. 

The  alphabet  should  be  devised  in  different  ways,  and 
with  varied  numbers  of  elements. 

In  the  study  of  semiology,  the  student  ought  to  be  re- 
quired to  illustrate  the  preceding  lessons  by  exercises  upon 
the  blackboard,  and  to  determine,  by  his  own  ingenuity, 
what  his  elementary  signals  shall  be,  and  how  he  will  com- 
bine them. 

A  good  signalist  ought  to  be  able  to  use  any  tilings  as  sig- 
nals, and  to  apply  at  any  time  the  rules  to  improvise  codes 
in  many  different  ways.  The  principles  must  be  thoroughly 
understood.  A  few  days'  study  and  practice  will  then  so 
far  perfect  almost  any  persons,  as  to  render  it  nearly  im- 


MANUAL  OF  SIGNALS.  66 

practicable  to  prevent  them  from  talking,  l>y  signs  of  Bome 

kind,  past  any  guards  or  sentries,  or   in   spite  of  other  re- 
straint that  may  be  put  upon  them. 


FIELD  SIGNALS  BY  ONE  ELEMENT. 

Signals  of  this  kind  are  not  much  used  for  general  pur- 
poses. Their  employment  is  almost  always  to  convey  one 
or  a  few  preconcerted  messages.  For  signals  of  this  class, 
one  thing  or  indication  is  to  be  used,  and  the  signal  is  not 
to  be  considered  as  varied,  though  the  symbol  may  vary  in 
any  signal.  To  mark  the  close  of  each  complete  signal, 
there  must  of  course  be  a  pause  of  time,  or  a  pause-signal. 
A  good  illustration  of  signals  of  this  kind  is  found  in  the 
striking  of  a  clock;  twelve  different  hours  are  indicated  by 
the  same;  and  a  single  sound,  repeated  the  proper  number 
of  times  to  suit  each  hour.  The  beat  of  sound  is  here  the 
signal  element.  If  in  the  striking  of  any  hour,  this  sound 
varies  so  as  to  make  two  or  three  different  notes  even,  this 
diffei-ence  of  sound  affects,  in  no  way,  the  meaning  of  the 
signal.  Signals  of  this  kind  may  be  used  in  the  field,  as 
where  one  rocket  is  thrown  up  to  indicate  any  one  message  ; 
two  rockets,  a  second  message;  three  rockets,  a  third  mes- 
sage ;  and  thus  on  to  any  given  number. 

Or  a  lio-ht  may  be  shown  a  certain  number  of  times,  as  .1 
candle  shoAvn  at  a  window  and  then  removed,  to  stand  for 
"  one,"  or  the  first  message ;  shown  twice  for  "  two,"  or  the 
second  message;  three  times  for  "three,"  or  the  third  mes- 
sage; and  thus  on.  Or,  in  a  field  or  in  a  boat,  a  lantern 
may  be  kept  lighted  in  a  pail,  and  hoisted  out  of  the  pail 
and  returned  to  it  to  make  each  Hash.  ( >r  a  lantern  may  In- 
shown  from  behind  a  fence,  or  any  kind  of  screen.  In  th 
illustrations,  the  flash  of  the  light  is  the  signal.     Each  com- 


66  MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS. 

plete  signal  may  be  shown  by  a  wave  of  the  light,  or  any 
other  sign,  as  the  pause-signal.  Or  guns  may  be  tired  the 
required  number  of  times  for  any  signal. 

Now,  in  any  of  these  signals,  which  are  to  depend  upon 
the  number  of  times  a  light  is  shown,  or  the  number  of 
times  a  gun  is  fired,  no  difference  of  meaning  is  made,  if  the 
light  changes,  or  if  there  is  difference  of  sound  in  different 
reports  of  the  gun  ;  for  it  is  remembered  one  element  only  is 
used,  and  that  the  signal  depends  solely  upon  the  number 
of  repetitions  of  that  element.  For  instance,  a  white  light 
shown  twice,  would  stand  for  message  number  "two." 
A  white  light  shown,  and  then  a  red  light,  making  two  in 
all,  would  also  stand  for  "two."  So  the  preconcert  being 
that  one  element  only  is  to  be  used  in  a  set  of  signals,  they 
may  be  made  to  seem  much  varied. 

Signals  of  one  element,  when  used  in  the  field,  are  gen- 
erally for  instances  as  these :  to  fire  two  guns  to  indicate 
a  completion  of  a  military  movement ;  to  throw  up  three 
rockets,  or  one  rocket,  to  announce  that  a  portion  of  the 
army  is  to  move.  Of  course  several  such  messages  can  be 
arranged  in  one  code. 


» 


Example  or  a  Code. 

A  rocket,  gun,  stroke  of  a  bell,  drum-beat,  steam-trumpet 
blast,  to  stand  for  each  unit  of  number. 


I,  Army  attack. 
II,  Gunboats  open  fire. 
IIT,  We  are  in  position. 
IIII,  Fire  rapidly,  etc.,  etc. 


.2  ^ 


1,  Army  attack. 

2,  Gunboats  open  fire. 

3,  We  are  in  position. 

4,  Fire  rapidly,  etc.,  etc. 


The  characters  in  either  column  indicate  the  same  desisr- 
nating  signals  ;— the  character  I  in  the  first  column  indicat- 
ing by  each  of  its  repetition^  the  repetition  of  the  signal  for 
which  it  stands. 


MANUAL  OF  SIGNALS.  (',, 

The  signals  of  such  a  code  may  be  flashes  of  Light,  <>r 
beats  of  sound,  or  colored  flags,  or  separate  motions,  or  any 
indications  which  can  be  made  distinct,  and  in  Buch  way 
that  they  may  be  counted. 


FIELD  SIGNALS  BY  TWO  ELEMENTS. 

The  plan  of  signals  most  used  in  the  army  is  one  by  two 
elements.  The  systematizing  of  signals,  using  a  liasis  of 
two  elements  only,  permits  illimitable  applications  at  once 
so  much  more  simple  and  more  varied  than  any  other,  that 
it  has  seemed  best  adapted  for  general  use.  The  mosl 
ancient  systems  of  which  there  is  record,  can  be  reduced  to 
this  principle  of  formation,  and  later  invention  has  been 
able  only  to  apply  the  principle  with  more  skilful  system 
and  in  more  efficient  modes. 

In  time  of  war,  the  intelligent  co-operation  of  the  army 
and  navy  becomes  essential  to  the  success  of  many  opera- 
tions. 

The  same  alphabetic  code  of  signals  should  then  be  used 
by  both  forces,  and  the  same  plans  of  cipher,  distributed  to 
chosen  officers  of  the  army  and  navy,  should  enable  the 
communication  to  be  by  either  concealed  from  the  enemy. 
The  signal  service  of  the  United  States  will  not  be  complete 
until  it  has  been  so  extended,  that  every  vessel  of  our  na\  \ 
can  be  certainly,  whenever  in  view,  in  communication  with 
each  post  on  land,  and  with  every  considerable  body  of 
land  forces. 

The  following  General  Service  Code  was  prepared  to  se- 
cure this  communication: 


08  MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS. 

GENERAL  SERVICE   CODE. 

(an  arrangement  of  two  symbols.) 

A,    22  P,    1212 

B,    2112  Q,    1211 

C,    121  R,    211 

D,    222  S,     212 

E,    12          T,    2 

E,    2221          U,    112 

G,    2211          V,    1222 

H,    122          W, 1121 

I,     1          X,   2122 

J,     , 1122          Y,    Ill 

K,   2121          Z,    2222 

L,    221          &, 1111 

M,    122  L          ing, 2212 

N", 11          tion, 1112 

O,    21 

3 — End  of  a  word. 

33 — End  of  a  sentence. 

333 — End  of  a  message. 

22.22.22.3 — Signal  of  assent :  " I  understand,"  or  "mes- 
sage is  received  and  understood,"  or  "  I  see  your  signals/' 
or  affirmative  generally. 

22.22.22.333 — Cease  signalling. 

121.121.121— Repeat. 

212121— Error. 

211.211.211— Move  a  little  to  the  right. 

221.221.221— Move  a  little  to  the  left, 

Flag  waved  successively  from  side  to  side  until  attention 
is  attracted — "Attention,  look  for  signals  from  this  point." 

Numerals. 

1.  21112 — Wait  a  moment. 

2.  1 2 2 2 1  —A re  yon  read  y  ? 


PL ATK    VI 


*^t 


Second  Motion  -Tv. 


12 


Two -One -Two -One    -    -I.:]" 


Tin  •   • 


MANUAL  OF  SIGNALS.  GO 

3.  22122—1  am  ready. 

4.  22212 — Use  short  pole  and  small  flag. 

5.  22221 — Use  long  pole  and  large  Hag. 

6.  12222— Work  faster. 

7.  11222— Did  you  understand  ? 

8.  Ill  1 2— Use  white  flag. 

9.  11211—  Use  black  flag. 
0.  22222 — Use  red  flag. 

"When  the  numerals  are  used  in  transmitting  messages  as 
code  signals,  they  have  the  meanings  given  above,  opposite 
each  character. 

a — after.         b — before.         c — can.         h — have, 
n — not  r — are.  t — the.         u — you. 

ur — your.        w — word.        wi — with.       y — why. 

The  Roman  letters  mav  be  used  instead  of  numeral  char- 
acters.  Or  the  first  ten  letters  of  the  alphabet  may  be  used 
as  indicated  at  page  41. 

The  signal  for  "the  address  of  the  message  is  now  com- 
plete,"  is  made  thus:  the  flag,  being  in  the  first  position  is 
dropped  to  the  front,  and  then  waved  in  full  circles  twice 
to  the  right,  passing  over  the  head.  It  then  resumes  the 
first  position.  The  signal  for  "the  me-sage  is  signed  as 
follows,"  is  made  thus:  the  flag,  being  in  the  first  position, 
is  dropped  to  the  front,  and  then  waved  in  full  circles  twice 
to  the  left,  passing  over  the  head;  it  then  resumes  the  first 
position. 

This  code,  distributed  to  the  different  posts  or  vessels,  is 
accompanied  by  a  card  as  follows ,  on  page  404. 

The  use  of  this  card  is  for  reference.  It  may  be  carried 
in  the  pocket-book. 

The  "General  Service  Code"  is  intended  to  be  used  tor 
general  communication  between  different  parties  on  land, 
or  between  vessels,  or  between  vessels  and  parties  on  land. 


70  MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS. 

It  is  for  the  purpose  of  transmitting  such  messages  only  as 
may  constantly  occur  in  service,  and  concerning  which  it 
does  not  matter  whether  they  are  interpreted  by  the  enemy 
or  not. 

Ciphers,  either  to  be  agreed  upon  by  particular  command- 
ers or  published  generally  through  the  command,  must 
always  be  used  in  the  transmission  of  messages  of  impor- 
tance, or  for  any  communication  which  might  give  informa- 
tion to  an  enemy. 

Instructions  for  Using  the  Code. 

The  whole  number  ojjposite  each  letter  stands  for  that 
letter. 

The  numbers  are  made,  by  motions  of  the  flag  or  signal, 
to  the  right  or  left  or  in  front  of  a  vertical  position. 

Day  Signals — Motions  op  Flags. 

To  make  day  signals,  there  being  furnished  the  Regula- 
tion set  of  Signal  Equipments,  a  flagman,  standing,  holds  in 
his  hand  a  plain  signal-staff,  eight  or  twelve  feet  long,  hav- 
ing a  signal  flag  attached  to  its  upper  extremity. 

Positions  and  Motions. 

There  are  one  Position  and  three  Motions.  (Plates  VI. 
and  VII.) 

The  first  position  is  with  the  flag  held  directly  above 
the  head  of  the  flagman,  the  butt  of  the  staff  at  the  height 
of  the  waist,  and  grasped  by  both  hands,  the  hands  sep- 
arated from  each  other  about  eighteen  inches. 

To  make  the  first  motion,  or  "  one"  or  "  1,"  the  flag, 
being  at  the  first  position,  is  waved  to  the  ground  to  the 
right,  and  instantly  returned  to  the  first  position. 

To  make  the  second  motion,  or  "  two"  or  "  2,"  the  flag, 


PLATE    VII 


First  Position-or  "Readv 


1  1 1  st  Motion-'One'-T 


Second  Motion- Two-  "2" 


"Two-One  —   1:1 


"One-Two-One-Two  —  "1212" 


"Three-  3  -  or-  Froiil 


MANUAL   OP  SIGNALS.  71 

being  at  the  first  position,  is  waved  to  the  ground  to  the 
left,  and  instantly  returned  to  the  first  position. 

To  make  the  third  motion,  or  "three"  or  "  3,"  the  n.i-_r, 
being  at  the  first  position,  is  waved  to  the  ground  directly 
in  front  of  the  flagman,  and  instantly  returned  to  the  firsl 
position. 

The  "first  motion"  is  known  for  the  signal  "  one,"  and  is 
indicated  by  the  numeral  "  1." 

The  "second  motion"  is  known  for  the  signal  "  two/'  and 
is  indicated  by  the  numeral  "  2." 

The  "third  motion"  is  known  for  the  pause-signal  "front," 
or  signal  "three,"  and  is  indicated  by  the  numeral  "3." 

When  the  number  is  a  single  figure,  but  one  motion  of 
the  flag,  to  the  right  or  left,  is  required  to  make  it. 

When  the  letter-number  consists  of  more  than  one  figure, 
the  motions  of  the  flag  for  each  figure  follow  each  other 
without  any  pause  between  them.  When  the  flag  stoji>  in 
the  vertical  position,  it  indicates  that  the  letter  is  completed. 

Thus  to  make  "I,"  or  "one"  or  "1,"  the  flag  is  waved 
once  to  the  right  (right)  and  then  pauses  in  the  fust, 
position. 

To  make  "  A,"  or  "  two  two,"  or  "  22,"  the  flag  is  waved 
without  pause  twice  to  the  left  (left  left)  ami  then  broughl 
to  the  first  position.  So  for  any  number  of  "twos"  follow- 
ing each  other. 

To  make  "13,"  or  "two  one  one  two"  or  "twenty i 

twelve"  or  "2112,"  the  flag  is  waved,  without  pause,  once 
to  the  left,  twice  to  the  right,  then  to  the  hit  (lefl  righl 
right  left),  and  then  brought  to  the  first  position— that  is, 
one  "second  motion,"  followed  by  two  "first  motions,"  fol- 
lowed by  one  "second  motion,"  the  flag  not  stopping  be- 
tween the  motions. 

To  make  "C,"  or  "one  two  one"  or  "  121,"  the  flag  is 
waved,  without  pause,  once  to  the  right,  once  to  the  left,  and 
then  to  the  right  (right  left  right),  and  then  broughl  to  the 


72  MANUAL    OF    SIGNALS. 

first  position — that  is,  one  "  first  motion,"  followed  by  one 
"  second  motion,"  followed  by  a  "  first  motion,"  the  flag  not 
stopping  between  the  motions. 

To  make  three  "fronts"  or  "  three  three  three"  or  "  three- 
thirty-three"  or  "  333,"  the  flag  is  waved  directly  to  the 
front  to  the  ground  three  times  without  pause,  and  then 
returned  to  the  first  position. 

The  code,  as  printed,  indicates  accurately  the  flag-motions 
or  waves  for  each  letter. 

At  the  end  of  each  letter  the  flag  remains  in  the  first  posi- 
tion about  two  seconds,  to  show  that  the  letter  is  finished. 

To  Send  a  Message. 

First  call  "attention"  by  waving  the  flag  successively 
from  side  to  side,  until  it  is  seen  and  answered  by  the 
opposite  station.  The  station  call  will  "  answer"  by  making 
22  .  22 .  22  .  3,  the  general  signal  for  assent  or  affirmation,  to 
signify  that  it  is  ready  to  receive  the  message.  The  commu- 
nicating station  then  makes  22.22.22.3,  signifying,  "I  see 
you  are  ready  to  receive  the  message,"  and  then  proceeds  to 
transmit  the  message,  letter  by  letter.  A  pause  is  made  at 
the  end  of  each  letter.  At  the  end  of  each  word,  the  flag  is 
waved  to  the  ground,  directly  in  front  ("  3,")  to  show  that 
the  word  is  finished.  At  the  end  of  each  sentence,  there  is 
a  pause,  and  the  flag  is  waved  to  the  ground  twice,  directly 
in  front  ("  33,")  to  show  that  the  sentence  is  finished.  At 
the  end  of  a  message,  the  flag  is  waved  to  the  ground 
three  times,  directly  in  front  ("333,")  showing  that  the 
message  is  finished. 

When  the  signal  "  333,"  "  end  of  message,"  is  made,  it  in- 
dicates, "My  communication  is  complete;  I  await  your  an- 
swer." The  station  receiving  the  message  will,  upon  noticing 
the  signal  "  message  complete,"  if  the  message  has  been  cor- 
rectly received,  immediately   answer,  with    the    signal    of 


MANUAL  OF   SIGNALS.  73 

assent,  "22.22.  22.  3;"  and  will  then,  if  the  Bending  station 
has  finished,  signal  in  turn  such  messages  as  it  may  have  to 
communicate.  If,  however,  the  message,  or  any  part  of  it, 
has  not  been  correctly  received,  or  is  not  understood,  tin- 
receiving  station  will  make  the  signal  for  "Repeat," 
"  121 .  121 .  121 .  3,"  followed  by  the  part  of  the  message  to 
be  repeated,  as  "  121 .  121 .  121 .  3  after  or  before  the  word 
■ — (here  signal  the  word  after  or  before  which  the  repeat  is 
required)."  If  the  message  is  not  understood  at  all,  the  sig- 
nal "  121 .  121 .  121 — all"  is  made.  In  commencing  a  repe- 
tition, the  sending  station  will  always  commence  by  making 
the  "signal  of  assent,"  to  show  that  the  call  for  "repeat"  i- 
understood. 

This  "signal  of  assent," ' meaning  "I  understand,"  will 
be  used  habitually  at  the  commencement  of  all  communi- 
cations. 

When,  in  the  transmission  of  a  message,  a  mistake  is  made, 
as  may  happen  by  the  error  of  the  signalist  or  of  the  flag- 
man, the  "error  signal"  "  212121 .  3"  is  made.  The  sender 
then,  beginning  with  the  letter  in  which  has  been  the  error, 
signals  it  correctly,  and  proceeds  with  the  message. 

To  make  clear  the  mode  of  signalling,  let  us  suppose  the 
word  "able"  is  to  be  signalled.  The  receiving  station  has 
been  called  with  the  "attention  signal,"  and  has  answered 
with  the  "signal  of  assent."  The  signalist  now  makes 
"  22 .  22  .  22 .  3,"  both  to  show  that  he  has  seen  the  "  assent," 
and  that  the  receiver  may  be  sure  he  sees  the  first  Letter. 
Then  there  are  made,  first,  the  signal  numbers  of  the  letter 
"A,"  "22;"  there  is  then  a  pause  of  two  seconds,  the  flag 
being  in  the  first  position.  The  signal  numbers  of  the  let- 
ter "B,"  "2112,"  are  then  made,  followed  by  another  pause. 
Then  the  signal  numbers  of  the  letter  "  L,"  "  22  1 ,"  succeeded 
by  another  pause.  The  signal  numbers  of  the  letter  "  E,  ' 
"  12,"  are  then  made.  The  flag  is  then  dropped  to  the  front 
("three"  "3''),  returning  to  the  first  position  to  indicate  that 

4 


74  MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS. 

the  word  is  ended,— and  thus,  in  a  message,  word  by  word, 
until  the  message  is  completed. 

The  signal  "address  complete"  is  made  just  after  the 
address;  and  the  signal  "message  signed"  is  made  just 
before  the  signature. 

At  the  close  of  the  message  the  signal  "  333"  is  made. 

The  receiver  acknowledges  the  message  correctly  received 
by  the  signal  of  "  assent ;"  or,  if  it  is  not  understood,  he  pro- 
ceeds as  before  indicated. 

Ordering  Signals. 

When  signals  are  made  with  the  Regulation  Signal  Equip- 
ment and  by  a  flagman  detailed  and  practised  for  the  pur- 
pose, the  flagman  properly  placed  and  equipped  and  stand- 
ing with  the  flag  and  staff  in  the  "  first  position,"  each  signal 
is  ordered  by  calling  off  briskly,  as  an  order,  the  numbers  for 
the  signal, — the  flagman  making  promptly,  on  hearing  each 
order,  those  motions  with  the  flag  indicated  by  the  signal 
numbers  ordered.  Each  letter-number  must  be  called 
plainly,  distinctly,  and  clearly  by  itself,  that  the  flagman 
may  know,  before  commencing  the  signal,  what  numbers 
are  to  be  made  together  without  pause,  so  that  the  motions 
may  be  made  rapidly  and  well  timed.  Thus,  in  orders, 
"  A"  "  22"  would  be  ordered  by  calling  "  twenty-two  ;" 
"B"  "2112,"  by  calling  "twenty-one  twelve;"  "  C"  "  121," 
"  one-twenty-one,"  Signal "  3"  "three,"  Signal  "  33"  " thirty- 
three." 

In  the  same  manner,  the  signalman  being  beforehand 
thoroughly  drilled  in  the  working,  the  orders  may  be  given 
for  whatever  apparatus — each  signal  being  made  as  directed 
for  the  particular  apparatus  on  the  hearing  of  the  order. 

With  practised  signalmen,  the  letter,  Avord,  or  clause  of 
a  sentence  to  be  transmitted,  may  be  given  in  words  and 
without  the  orders  for  the  signal  numbers,  unless  the  mes- 
sage is  to  be  in  cipher. 


MANUAL  OF  SIGNALS.  JO 

When  in  actual  Bervice,  the  signals  arc  made  whollj  m 
cipher;  and  the  greatest  care  is  needed  both  in  the  order- 
ing and  in  the  record. 


o 


Recording  Signals. 

"When  circumstances  render  it  necessary,  a  pause  will  be 
made  at  the  end  of  each  sentence,  to  permil  thai  sent  nice 
to  be  accurately  written  down.  With  skilled  signalists, 
such  pauses  are  not  necessary.  Each  signal  number  may 
be  taken  down  with  a  pencil  as  soon  as  it  is  seen,  and  after- 
wards translated  by  reference  to  the  code.  When  the 
siii'nalist  is  accustomed  to  the  code,  this  may  be  dispensed 
Avith,  and  only  the  words  and  sentences  are  written  down 
during  the  pauses.  "When  two  men  are  together  at  a  sta- 
tion, one  man  looks  through  the  glass  and  calls  the  num- 
bers, as  fast  as  they  are  seen,  to  the  other,  who  writes  them 
down.  Messages  are  thus  recorded  in  the  signal  numbers 
composing  them.  This  is  done  by  writing  for  each  letter 
the  signal  number  which  stands  for  it;  thus  the  word 
"WAS,"  written  in  signal  numbers  is,  "1121  22  212," 
each  letter  in  signal  numbers  being  separated  from  the  nexl 
by  a  small  space.  Each  complete  word  is  separated  from 
the  next  by  a  dash;  as  "WAS— NOT,"  is  in  signal 
numbers,  "1121  22  212—11  21  2." 

When  secret  or  cipher  codes,  codes  devised  for  the :a- 

sion,  or  codes  not  before  used,  are  employed;  or  when  the 
commander  wishes  a  message  signalled  of  which  he  and  his 
correspondent  alone  shall  know  the  meaning,  the  message 
may  be  thus  reduced  to  signal  numbers,  which  may  be 
secret,  before  being  placed  in  the  hands  of  the  Bignalist, 
who  then  becomes  simply  a  medium  for  the  transmission 
of  the  message,  without  knowledge  of  its  contents.  By 
this  plan  of  reducing  a  message  to  its  signal  numbers  written 
upon  paper  before  it  is  sent,  and  of  recording  upon   paper 


76  MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS. 

the  signal  numbers  made  by  others  as  they  are  received, 
translating  them  afterwards  by  the  code,  it  will  be  found 
that  messages  may  be  almost  immediately  exchanged, 
though  slowly,  by  those  having  knowledge  of  the  principles 
of  the  codes  without  the  study  or  practice  of  any  particular 
code. 

In  calling  off,  from  the  glass,  signal  numbers  to  be  re- 
corded  in  writing,  each  signal  number  must  be  called,  dis- 
tinctly and  completely,  by  itself;  as,  for  instance,  "  one 
twenty-one"  "twenty-two"  "one  twelve,"  and  so  on. 

The  rules  for  sending,  receiving,  ordering,  and  recording 
are  of  general  application,  whatever  style  of  signals  may  be 
used. 

Day  Signals — Vertical  Motions. 

Let  there  be  an  upright  rod  or  standard  (Plate  VIII, 
Figs.  1,  2,  3,  4)  projecting,  as  above  the  roof  of  a  house  or 
the  deck  of  a  vessel,  on  which  the  signal  ball  B  can  be 
moved  freely  up  and  down  by  halyards,  or  by  a  light 
"  moving-rod"  moving  in  a  groove  in  the  upright. 

The  moving-rod,  to  which  the  signal  ball  is  attached,  ex- 
tends below  the  deck  or  roof,  where  it  can  be  grasped  and 
worked  by  hand.  The  upright  rod  is  called  the  "  signal 
staff," — it  should  be  about  five  feet  long.  The  centre  of  the 
signal-staff  is  the  point  of  reference  and  of  rest. 

The  "  first  position"  is  when  the  signal  ball  is  at  the 
centre  or  point  of  reference. 

The  ball  being  at  the  first  position  : — 

To  make  the  "  first  motion,"  the  signal  "  one"  "  1,"  the 
signal  ball  is  moved  rapidly  to  the  top  of  the  signal  staff 
and  instantly  returned  to  the  first  position. 

To  make  the  "  second  motion,"  the  signal  "  two"  "  2," 
the  signal  ball  is  moved  rapidly  to  the  bottom  of  the  signal 
staff  and  instantly  returned  to  the  first  position. 

To  make  the  "  third  motion,"  the  signal  "  three"  or  "  3," 


PLATE   Mil. 


i 

Fig      ; 


Fie.i 


SI  ! 


,,,, 



s 


Mb  I   two  Pause  Signal 

,  I 

'•   ;         -I 


Fig  8,      - 

;  ! 


Mot.  one 


\fut.  tiro 


I 'aiiv  Signal 


Mode  of  Sending 
up  Flags 


IVt.-aih 


Mull. hi 


Motion   I 


MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS.  77 

the  signal  ball  is  moved  rapidly  in  what  is  called  a  half 
motion,  a  little  above  and  then  a  little  below  tin*  point  >>t' 
reference,  and  instantly  returned  to  the  first  position. 

The  same  ball,  resting  at  the  point  of  reference,  is  the 
pause-signal,  to  denote  the  completion  of  any  letter-signal 

The  length  of  movement  which  can  be  most  conveniently 
given  to  the  signal  ball,  when  worked  by  a  "  moving-rod," 
is  aboxit  the  length  of  the  arm  above  the  centre  of  tin-  Bisr- 
nal  staff  to  make  the  "  ones,"  and  about  the  same  length 
below  that  point  to  make  the  "  twos." 

To  work  the  signal  ball,  the  signalman,  standing  under 
the  deck  or  inside  the  house,  holds,  grasped  in  Ins  right 
hand,  and  at  the  height  of  his  shoulder,  the  handle  of  the 
moving-rod,  as  at  Plate  VIII,  Figure  1. 

The  signal  staff  and  the  moving-rod  are  so  proportioned 
that  the  signal  ball  is  then  at  the  point  of  reference.  This 
is  the  "first  position,  or  "  ready." 

To  make  the  "  first  motion,"  "  one"  "  1,"  the  right  arm, 
the  hand  grasping  the  handle,  is  quickly  extended  the  full 
length  of  the  arm,  above  the  head,  and  instantly  returned 
to  the  first  position. 

To  make  the  "  second  motion,"  "  two"  "  2,"  the  right 
arm,  the  hand  grasping  the  handle,  is  quickly  extended  the 
'full  length  of  the  arm,  below  the  shoulder,  and  instantly 
returned  to  the  "  first  position." 

To  make  the  "  third  motion,"  "  three"  "  3,"  a  short, 
quick  motion  is  made,  above  and  below  the  shoulder,  with 
the  hand  grasping  the  handle. 

In  this  way,  the  ball,  being  at  the  first  position,  to  sig- 
nal "A"  "22,"  the  hand  and  rod-handle  are  carried  twict 
at  arm's  length,  below  the  shoulder,  and  at  once  returned 
to  first  position;  the  signal  ball  moves  rapidly  twice  to 
the  foot  of  the  standard  and  then  resumes  the  first  position. 

To  signal  "1"'  "1212,"  the  hand  and  rod-handle  are 
carried,   without  pause,  once  at   arm's   length   above   the 


78  MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS. 

shoulder,  then  once  at  arm's  length  below  the  shoulder, 
then  again  at  arm's  length  above  the  shoulder,  then  ao-ain 
at  arm's  length  below  the  shoulder,  then  return  to  first 
position  ;  or  there  is  made  one  first  motion,  followed  by 
one  second  motion,  followed  by  one  first  motion,  followed 
by  one  second  motion,  "  one-two-one-two."  The  signal 
ball  is  moved,  without  stopping,  once  to  the  top  of  the 
standard,  then  once  to  the  foot  of  the  standard,  then  again 
to  the  top,  then  again  to  the  foot,  and  rests  at  the  first 
position.  To  make  "  C"  "  121,"  the  signal  ball  is  moved 
once  to  the  top  of  the  standard,  then,  without  pause,  to 
the  foot  of  the  standard,  then  again  to  the  top,  and  rests 
at  first  position.  To  make  "  Y"  "  111,"  the  signal  ball  is 
carried  three  times  to  the  top  of  the  standard.  To  make 
"  E"  "  12,"  the  signal  ball  is  carried  once  to  the  top  and 
once  to  the  bottom.  To  make  "  33,"  the  signal  ball  de- 
scribes  quickly  two  "  half  motions." 

At  the  completion  of  each  signal  letter,  the  signal  ball 
rests  at  the  centre  of  the  staff,  the  point  of  reference. 

A  modification  of  this  plan  is  at  Plate  IX,  Fig.  5  ; — a 
signal  ball  B  fitted  to  traverse  on  a  signal  staff",  and  moved 
by  the  halyards  H  H,  attaching  to  the  upper  and  lower 
sides  of  the  ball,  and  passing  through  pulleys  at  the  top 
and  bottom  of  the  signal  staff. 

The  point  of  reference,  the  positions,  motions,  and  pauses 
of  the  signal  ball  are  similar  to  those  just  described. 

To  work  the  halyards  there  are  one  position  and  three 
motions. 

The  "  first  position,"  the  signalman  standing,  one  cord 
of  the  halyard  grasped  in  each  hand,  hands  at  the  height 
of  and  in  front  of  the  shoulder.     From  this  position — 

To  make  the  "  first  motion,"  extend  at  the  same  moment 
the  left  arm  and  hand  at  full  length  above,  and  the  right 
arm  and  hand  at  full  length  below  the  shoulders.  Re- 
sume the  first  position. 


MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS.  7'.) 

To  make  the  "  second  motion,"  extend  at  the  same  mo- 
ment the  right  arm  and  hand  at  full  length  above,  and 
t lie  left  arm  and  hand  at  full  length  below  the  Bhdulders, 
Resume  the  first  position. 

To  make  the  "third  motion,"  the  left  and  right  hands 
are  raised  a  little  way  alternately,  and  then  return  to  Bret 
position. 

To  signal  "E"  "12,"  extend  the  left  arm  up  and  the 
right  arm  down,  "one;"  then  immediately  reverse  the  po- 
sition, extending  the  right  arm  up  and  the  left  arm  down, 
"  two."     Resume  the  first  position. 

To  signal  "  C"  "  121,"  extend  the  left  without  pause  up, 
and  right  down,  "one;"  the  left  down,  and  right  up, 
"two  ;"  the  left  up,  and  right  down,  "one."  Resume  the 
first  position. 

The  motions  and  positions  of  the  arms  can  be  readily 
understood  by  Plate  VIII,  Fig.  9. 

The  length  of  motion  given  the  signal  ball  is,  when  the 
halyards  are  worked  by  hand,  about  four  feet  above  and 
below  the  point  of  reference. 

The  halyards  can  be  carried  over  a  light-grooved  wheel 
at  the  foot  of  the  mast  in  such  a  way  that  these  signals 
can  be  rapidly  and  accurately  displayed,  and  with  a  greater 
length  of  movement. 

The  wheel  is  worked  by  a  flagman. 

Signals  made  in  this  manner  have  the  advantage  that  they 
can  be  read  at  the  same  time  from  different  directions. 

A  plan  of  signals  by  vertical  motions  is  shown  Figs.  5,  6, 
7,  8,  Plate  VIII. 

Let  there  be  a  short  marker-rod,  having  at  its  top  end, 
and  about  an  arm's  length  above  the  roof,  a  marker-ball 
This  is  the  point  of  reference.  Near  this  marker,  ami  work- 
ing freely  vertically  through  the  roof,  is  a  signal  rod,  bearing 
at  its  upper  end  a  signal  hall.  This  Bignal  rod  is  of  such 
length  that  it  extends  below  the  roof  a  sufficient  distance  to 


80  MANUAL   OF    SIGNALS. 

permit  of  its  being  worked  by  hand  to  make  the  signal  mo- 
tions, and  when  grasped  by  the  hand,  held  at  the  height  of 
the  shoulder,  brings  the  signal  ball  close  to  and  at  the  same 
elevation  as  the  marker-ball.  The  balls  so  placed  are  in  the 
"  first  position,"  the  "  rest,"  or  "  ready." 

The  motions,  positions,  half  motions,  and  pauses  of  the  sig- 
nal ball  are  made  for  signals  in  the  same  way,  and  have  the 
same  meaning  as  the  vertical  signals  first  above  described. 
(Plate  VIII.) 

This  plan  can  be  very  simply  applied  without  any  appara- 
tus. Thus  a  signal  staff,  having  at  its  end  a  signal  ball  or  a 
signal  of  any  kind,  so  that  it  is  visible,  can  be  thrust  through 
the  roof  or  deck  or  any  part  of  any  structure,  and  moved  up 
and  down  or  back  and  forth  to  make  signals, — some  par- 
ticular part  of  the  structure  affording  a  point  of  reference, 
by  reference  to  which  the  direction  of  the  movements  can 
be  judged.  It  is  necessary  only  to  know  where  the  ball 
rests,  as  at  its  point  of  reference,  and  to  be  able  to  deter- 
mine when  it  moves  above  and  below  that  point,  and  when 
it  returns  to  it,  in  the  formation  of  signals. 

So  a  ramrod,  having  a  handkerchief  bound  around  its  end, 
can  be  projected  into  view  from  any  part  of  a  house  or  ves- 
sel, and  used  as  a  signal  staff.  Or  any  rod,  eight  or  nine 
feet  long,  with  a  hat  or  flag  of  any  kind  fastened  to  it,  will 
be  a  sufficient  signal  rod. 

An  established  "  point  of  reference"  insures  accuracy, 
however,  and  one  can  be  so  easily  set  up  that  the  marker 
ought  always  to  be  used  when  it  can  be. 

The  illustrations  at  Plate  IX,  Figs.  1,  2,  3,  4,  afford  ex- 
amples of  possible  applications  of  these  plans  in  service. 
All  the  parts  of  the  apparatus  may  be  of  the  most  simple 
structure,  of  articles  that  are  almost  always  at  hand. 


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MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS.  81 

Day  Signals  by  Horizontal  Motions. 

Day  signals  can  be  made  by  horizontal  motions,  if  there  is 
the  necessity.  The  application  of  the  principle  is  similar  to 
that  already  given,  except  in  this,  that  the  motions  arc 
made  horizontally  from  side  to  side,  and  are  to  the  righl  or 
left  of  some  point  of  reference  or  fixed  position  instead  of 
above  or  below  it.  Assume  any  one  of  the  apparatus  just 
illustrated  to  be  projected  horizontally  from  the  side  instead 
of  from  the  top  of  any  structure,  and  put  in  operation.  The 
mode  of  signalling  will  be  easily  comprehended. 

The  First  Position  is  with  the  Signal  at  the  point  of  refer- 
ence. The  First  Motion  is  to  the  outward  extremity  of  the 
apparatus,  if  working  from  any  structure  or  to  the  right  of 
the  signalist.  The  Second  Motion  is  the  opposite  of  the 
First  Motion,  whatever  that  may  be.  The  Third  Motion  or 
half  motion,  is  a  perceptible  movement  from  side  to  side  of 
the  point  of  Rest. 

The  illustrations  of  horizontal  apparatus  at  Fig.  3,  Plate 
IX,  make  clear  the  application. 

Day  signals  may  of  course  be  made  by  any  two  differing 
motions.  As  by  one  vertical  and  one  horizontal,  or  by  any 
two  indications.  It  is  proposed  to  give  here  sufficient  for 
practical  use. 

Night  Signals. 

To  be  made  with  signal  equipments.  A  flagman,  standing, 
holds  in  his  hand  a  staff  twelve  feet  long,  a  Hying  torch,  one 
and  one-half  inch  in  diameter,  wicked,  filled  with  turpentine, 
lighted  and  attached  to  the  upper  extremity  of  the  signal 
staff  by  clamp-screws.  Copper  foot-torch,  two  inches  in 
diameter,  wicked,  filled  with  turpentine,  and  lighted,  is 
placed,  lying  horizontally,  at  the  feet  and  in  fronl  of  the 
flagman.  (Plate  X,  Fig.  1.)  The  positions,  order-,  and 
motions  for  signalling  at  night,  are  identical  with  those  used 

4* 


82  MANUAL  OF   SIGNALS. 

in  the  day ;  the  lighted  foot-torch  being  the  "  point  of  ref- 
erence" in  relation  to  which  all  motions  are  made.  Each 
torch  is  fitted  with  an  extinguisher.  At  the  conclusion  of 
each  message,  the  flying  torch  is  extinguished.  The  foot- 
light  or  some  other  light  is  left  burning  in  its  place  as  long 
as  signalling  is  continued,  to  the  end  that  the  communi- 
cating station  may  see  to  what  point  to  direct  their  signals. 
A  small  fire  or  lantern  is  often  used. 

When,  during  the  transmission  of  a  message,  the  flying 
torch  is  lowered  to  the  left  and  is  there  extinguished,  it  in- 
dicates that  it  is  extinguished  to  be  refilled,  and  as  soon  as 
filled  and  relighted,  the  message  will  be  resumed  without 
any  further  intimation.  The  torch  must  be  refilled  at  the 
end  of  some  word. 

In  night  signalling,  great  care  must  be  taken  that  the  ref- 
erence or  foot-light  is  always  and  certainly  within  view  of 
the  communicating  station.  To  ascertain  this,  placing  the 
eye  on  the  level  and  in  the  place  of  the  foot-light,  it  must 
be  noted  whether  the  foot-light  at  the  communicating  sta- 
tion can  be  thence  seen :  if  not,  the  foot-light  must  be  raised 
or  moved  to  a  position  certainly  visible.  This  precaution 
should  always  be  taken.-  The  foot-light  must  be  always  in 
front  of  the  flagman  and  directly  beneath  the  flying  torch, 
when  that  is  in  the  first  position. 

It  must  be  ascertained,  by  viewing  the  foot-light  at  the 
communicating  station  in  the  same  way,  from  the  ground 
at  either  extremity  of  the  torch-swing,  whether  the  torch 
also  is  in  view  to  the  communicating  station  at  all  parts  of 
its  course. 

The  torch  should  be  refilled  every  fifteen  minutes,  and 
carefully  trimmed  after  each  message.  When  not  in  use, 
the  wick  should  be  covered  with  the  extinguisher. 

Lanterns  are  sometimes  substituted  for  the  foot-torch,  es- 
pecially on  board  of  vessels  where  there  is  danger  of  fire. 

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M\NQL   OF   SIGNALS. 

should  be  selected.  Lanterns  with  reflectors  ran  be  used, 
taking  care  that  the  lantern  is  so  placed  as  to  throw  its 
light  upon  the  communicating  station.  A  lantern  may  1"' 
substituted  for  the  flying  torch,  and  attached  to  the  ex- 
tremity of  the  staff  in  its  stead.  This  will  be  found  difficult, 
however.  The  light  is  not  nearly  so  brilliant  or  so  distinct 
as  that  given  by  the  torch. 

In  signalling  at  short  distances,  lanterns  may  be  used  in- 
stead of  torches.  One  lantern  being  placed  stationary  as 
the  foot-light,  the  other  may  be  held  directly  above  the 
head,  in  the  hand  as  the  first  position.  This  lantern  is  then 
waved  to  the  right,  for  "one"  "  1  :"  to  the  left,  for  "  two" 
"  2  ;"  and  lowered  to  the  waist,  for  "  three"  "  3,"  or  pause- 
signal. 

Signals  can  be  made  in  this  way,  very  conveniently  for 
ship  use,  by  placing  one  lantern  upon  the  rail,  and  waving 
the  other  to  its  right  or  left  to  make  any  required  signals, 
the  general  principles  of  the  signals  remaining  the  same 
Signals  made  in  this  way  are  of  convenient  use  in  boats. 

A  convenient  foot-light  is  often  made,  on  shore,  by  light- 
ing a  small  fire  near  the  feet  of  the  signalist.  With  a  single 
lantern  then  held  in  the  hand,  or  attached  to  a  small  staff, 
any  message  can  be  sent.  Or  if,  for  any  cause,  lanterns  are 
not  attainable,  and  fires  can  be  kindled,  a  small  fire  may  be 
used  as  a  foot-lio-ht,  while  the  signal  motions  are  made  with 
a  brand  from  the  fire,  or  a  lighted  pine-knot,  or  a  piece  of 
tarred  rope,  or  with  almost  any  combustible  substance, 
capable  of  showing  a  flame  and  a  light,  held  in  the  hand 
or  attached  to  a  staff,  and  properly  waved  to  either  side 
or  to  the  front  to  make  the  required  signal  motions.  (Plate 
XI,  Figs.  G,  7.) 

Night  Signals  by  Vertical  Motions. 

Let  there  be  one  fixed  light,  as  a  brilliant  lantern  or  lamp, 
fastened  or  hung  to  a  standard.     On   shipboard,  thi<   must 


81  MANUAL   OF    SIGNALS. 

be  two  or  three  feet  above  the  rail  of  the  vessel.  This  is 
the  "  light  or  point  of  reference."  This  reference  light 
must  be  red,  or  of  some  color  different  from  the  moving 
light;  or  it  must  be  distinguished  from  it  by  its  intensity. 
Immediately  behind  or  near  the  standard  of  the  fixed  light, 
is  placed  another  standard  or  rod,  twice  the  length  of  the 
first.  To  this  rod  is  attached,  by  rings  or  slides,  so  that  it 
may  be  moved  steadily  and  easily  up  and  down  by  the 
hand,  another  lantern  or  lamp.  This  is  the  moving  or  fly- 
ing light,  and  the  signals  are  made  by  its  motions.  The 
two  lanterns  being  brought  as  nearly  as  possible  together, 
are  in  the  "first  position."     (Plate  XI,  Fig  1.) 

To  make  the  signal  "  one"  "  1,"  the  flying  lamp  is  moved 
rapidly  to  the  top  of  its  standard,  and  instantly  returned  to 
the  first  position. 

To  make  the  signal  "two"  "2,"  the  flying  light  is  slid 
rapidly  to  the  bottom  of  the  rod,  and  instantly  returned  to 
the  first  position. 

To  make  "three"  "  3,"  or  pause-signal,  the  flying  light  is 
moved  quickly  a  very  short  distance  above,  and  then  an 
equal  distance  below  the  fixed  light,  returning  to  the  first 
position — making  what  is  called  a  half  motion. 

Thus  to  signal  "  C"  "  121,"  the  flying  light  starting  from 
the  first  position,  would  be  carried  to  the  top  of  the  rod, 
then,  without  pause,  to  the  foot  of  the  rod,  then  quickly  to 
the  top  of  the  rod  again,  thence  to  the  first  position. 

To  make  "  A"  "  22,"  the  flying  light,  starting  from  first 
position,  is  moved  rapidly  to  the  foot  of  the  rod,  back  to 
the  first  position,  again  to  the  foot  of  the  rod,  and  then 
assumes  the  first  position,  thus  making  the  second  motion 
twice. 

To  make  "  N"  "  11,"  the  flying  light  being  in  the  first 
position,  is  moved  rapidly  to  the  top  of  the  rod,  back  to  the 
first  position,  again  to  the  top  of  the  rod,  and  then  resumes 
the  firsl  position. 


MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS.  Bo 

To  make  "M"  "1221,"  the  flying  light,  being  in  the  first 
position,  is  moved  rapidly  to  the  top  of  the  rod ;  then,  with- 
out pause,  to  the  foot  of  the  rod;  l.ark  to  the  first  position; 
again  to  the  foot  of  the  rod ;  thence  to  the  top  of  the  rod; 
and  then  returns  to  the  first  position — that  is,  there  arc* 
made  one  first  motion  followed  by  two  second  motions,  fol- 
lowed by  one  first  motion. 

To  make  "33"  or  "clause-signal,"  there  are  made  two 
half  motions.  After  the  manner  of  these  examples  are 
made  whatever  signals  may  be  required. 


Night  Signals  by  Horizontal  Motions. 

The  principle  of  this  application  is  similar  to  that  jusl  de- 
scribed. The  motions  have  the  same  value  and  arc  made  in 
the  same  manner;  with  this  difference  only,  that  the  Hying 
light  is  moved  horizontally  and  to  the  right  and  left  of  the 
fixed  light,  instead  of  above  and  below  it. 

The  standard  or  fixed  light  being  placed  as  before  de- 
scribed, the  flying  light  is  arranged  to  traverse  or  s li ■  1  < ■ 
freely  on  a  small  bar  or  rod  placed  horizontally  behind  it. 
The  lights  being  brought  as  nearly  as  possible  together,  are 
in  the  first  position.  To  make  the  signal  "one"  "1"  the 
flying  light  is  slid  to  the  right  a  distance  of  three  or  four 
feet,  and  brought  instantly  back  to  the  first  position.  To 
make  the  signal  "two"  "2,"  the  flying  light  is  slid  rapidly 
to  a  distance  of  three  or  four  feet  to  the  left,  and  is  brought 
instantly  back  to  the  first  position.  To  make  the  signal 
"three"  "3,"  the  flying  light  describes  a  half  motion,  say  a 
foot  to  the  right,  and  then  a  foot  to  the  left  of  the  fixed 
light,  returning  to  the  first  position;  and  thus  for  any  num- 
ber of  "ones"  and  "twos,"  or  for  any  combinations  of 
"ones"  and  "twos."     (Plate  XI,  Fig.  2.) 

To  increase  the  motion  of  the  flying  light,  :i  handle  may 


8G  MANUAL   OF    SIGNALS. 

be  attached  to  the  lantern  by  a  swivel-joint.  A  movement 
of  several  feet  is  thus  permitted. 

Either  apparatus  here  described,  can  be  simply  arranged 
anywhere.  They  have  especial  value  on  shipboard,  for  the 
reason  that,  from  signals  thus  made,  there  can  be  no  danger 
fn  >m  fire.  The  brightest  attainable  lamps  or  lanterns  should 
be  used,  and  the  two  lights  should  be,  either  by  their  color 
or  brilliancy,  easily  distinguishable.  It  is  well  that  the 
fixed  light  should  be  either  red,  green,  or  some  other  marked 
color.  They  can  be  made  with  material  almost  always  at 
hand. 

Signals  made  on  this  plan,  are  capable  of  very  simple 
application.  Thus  a  red,  or  other  colored  light,  can  be 
hung  in  the  rigging,  or  on  the  side  of  the  ship  or  boat; 
while  a  lantern,  held  in  the  hand,  is  moved  above  and  below 
it,  making  signals  by  vertical  motions,  as  above  described  ; 
or  to  the  right  and  left  of  it,  making  signals  by  horizontal 
motions.     (Plate  XI,  Figs.  3,  4.) 

For  signals  at  short  ranges,  there  is  then  needed  no  kind 
of  apparatus. 

Of  the  many  modes  of  night  signalling,  these  described 
are,  perhaps,  sufficient  for  all  ordinary  uses. 

The  signals  heretofore  described  have  these  advantages. 
They  are  capable  of  universal  application.  The  mode  of 
making  them  is  very  simple,  and  is  very  easily  learned. 
They  are  distinct,  and  easily  read.  They  are  very  plain. 
Every  signal  is,  in  reality,  repeated  "  twice"  each  time  it  is 
shown.  Thus  the  waves  to  the  right  or  left,  heretofore  de- 
scribed, are  read  "  one"  or  "two,"  whether  the  flag  or  torch 
is  descending  or  ascending.  It  is  necessary  only  to  see  that 
the  signal  is  in  motion  somewhere  on  the  right  to  read  "one." 
In  the  same  way,  it  is  necessary  only  to  note  that  the  signal 
is  waving  on  the  left  to  read  "  two."*  A  similar  advantage  is 
had  in  the  plans  tin- signals  by  vertical  or  horizontal  motions. 


MANUAL  OF  SIGNALS.  87 

The  chances  of  seeing  the  signals  are  thus  greatly  increased. 
The  signals  are  made  with  very  simple  apparatus.  It  is 
strong,  portable,  can  be  carried  anywhere  (oil  horse  or  on 
foot),  is  not  liable  to  be  damaged  by  an  enemy's  fire,  or 
by  rough  handling,  and  is  always  available  and  ready  for 
use.  It  can  be  used  in  almost  any  situation.  The  signals 
can  be  seen  at  very  considerable  distances.  Avail  can  be 
had  of  many  devices  to  make  them  visible.  Thus  the  flags 
can  contrast  most  strongly  with  the  backgrounds  against 
which  they  are  visible.  The  motion  of  the  signal  is  a  val- 
uable auxiliary  of  its  visibility,  this  motion  of  the  signal  ob- 
ject or  light  producing  a  long  and  marked  impression  upon 
the  retina  of  the  eye.  A  thing  in  motion  can  always  be 
seen  and  will  attract  attention,  when  a  similar  object  resting 
produces  no  sensation.  We  recognize  this  fact  instinctively 
when  we  wave  a  handkerchief,  or  light,  to  attract  attention. 
It  is  never  held  still,  for  this  purpose,  and  would  be  ineffec- 
tive if  it  were. 

The  signals  made  with  the  ordinary  equipments,  say  a 
staff  twelve  feet  long,  and  a  flag  four  feet  square,  or  with 
the  torches  at  night,  are  easily  legible  at  a  distance  of  eight 
miles  at  almost  all  times,  except  in  cases  of  fog  and  rain. 
They  are  read  at  fifteen  miles  on  days  and  nights  ordinarily 
clear,  and  have  been  legible  at  twenty-live  miles.  Greater 
distances  are  reported;  but  it  is  questionable  if,  at  those 
distances,  there  is  reliability. 

Transient  Signals. 

Transient  signals  comprise  signals  by  flashes,  signals  by 
occultations,  and  signals  by  sound. 

Signals  by  flashes  and  by  occultations  are  identical  in 
character  and  the  principle  by  which  they  convey  meaning. 


88  MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS. 


Signals  by  Flashes. 

Signals  by  flashes  are  not  generally  as  distinct,  or  as 
easily  read,  as  signals  by  motion.  This  is  markedly  the 
case  when  it  is  necessary  to  use  the  telescope.  It  is  almost 
impossible  to  keep  it  at  night  upon  any  light  which  is  not 
constant.  When  motions  are  used  the  lights  are  kept  con- 
stantly in  view,  thus  rendering  it  possible  to  fix  the  tel- 
escope upon  them,  and  to  accurately  observe  them. 

Signals  by  flashes  are  made  by  flashes  of  different  colors, 
as  red  for  "  one,"  and  white  for  "  two  ;"  by  flashes  of  differ- 
ent lengths,  as  a  short  flash  for  "  one,'  and  a  long  flash  for 
"  two ;"  or.  by  different  numbers  of  flashes,  as  one  quick 
flash  for  "  one,"  and  two  quick  flashes  for  "  two."  They 
may  be  used  in  many  other  ways,  but  these  are  sufficient 
for  any  ordinary  use. 

If  a  lantern  (Plate  XX,  Fig.  4),  with  spring  shades  and 
spring  handles,  showing  no  light  when  put  in  position,  shows 
a  white  flash  when  handle  "  one"  is  pressed  down  and  then 
let  go  ;  a  red  flash  when  handle  "  two"  is  pressed  and  let  go ; 
and  a  green  flash  when  handle  "  three"  is  pressed  and  let 
go ;  this  lantern  will  suffice  for  all  kinds  of  telegraphing  by 
flashes,  that  will  in  ordinary  use  be  required.  Thus,  atten- 
tion being  called,  by  a  number  of  consecutive  flashes,  the 
signal  lantern  is  allowed  to  stand  dark.  It  is  well  to  have 
another  lantern  standing  close  to  it  as  a  marker,  to  enable 
the  telescope  at  the  other  station  to  be  kept  on  the  signal 
lantern  at  night. 

To  make  "one"  "  1,"  press  down  handle  "one"  and  let  it 
go — it  shows  a  white  flash.  To  make  "  two"  "  2,"  press 
down  handle  "two,"  and  let  it  go — it  shows  a  red  flash. 
For  "  three"  "  3,"  or  a  pause-signal,  show  a  green  flash  by 
pressing  down  handle  "  three."  Pauses  between  the  signals 
may  be  indicated  by  time,  as  an  interval  being  allowed  to 


MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS.  89 

elapse  after  each  complete  signal,  and  a  longer  interval  at 
the  end  of  a  word. 

Thus,  to  signal  "A,"  "22,"  flash  "red  red."  To  Bignal 
«K,"  "2121,"  flash  "red  white  red  white."  T<>  signal  "S," 
"212,"  flash  "red  white  red."  To  signal  -  W,"  -  I  121," 
flash  "  white  white  red  white."  To  make  "  three,"  "  8,"  end 
of  a  word,  flash  "green."  To  make  " 33,"  flash  " green 
green."  A  dark  interval  after  each  signal  marks  the  com- 
pletion of  the  signal. 

Or  to  work  with  flashes  of  one  color: 

To  make  "  one"  "  1,"  "  press  down  the  handle  for  a  second 
of  time ;  it  shows  a  short  flash. 

To  make  "two,"  "2,"  press  down  the  handle  with  a 
longer  pressure ;  it  shows  a  long  flash,  "  two"  "  2." 

Let  "  three"  "  3"  be  a  long  dark  interval. 

Thus,  to  signal  "  E,"  "  12,"  flash  "  short,  long."  To  signal 
"M,"  "1221,"  flash  "  short,  long,  long,  short."  To  signal 
"  S,"  "  212,"  flash  "  long,  short,  long."  A  short  dark  interval 
marks  the  completion  of  each  letter :  a  longer  dark  interval, 
the  end  of  each  word. 

Or  a  red  flash,  or  any  signal  may  be  adopted  as  "  three." 

Another  method : 

To  make  " one"  "  1,"  press  down  the  handle  once;  it 
shows  a  short  flash. 

To  make  "two,"  press  down  the  handle  twice;  it  shows 
two  short  flashes.     To  make  "three,"  a  dark  interval. 

Thus,  to  make  "K,"  "  2121,"  flash  "  twice,  once,  twice, 
once." 

To  make  "L,"  "221,"  flash  "twice,  twice,  once." 

A  short  dark  interval  after  each  letter.  A  long  dark  in- 
terval after  each  word. 

The  flashdantern  can  be  used  in  various  ways,  which  will 
suggest  themselves.  It  is  a  convenient  style  of  signalling 
when  space  is  limited,  as  in  a  boat,  or  it  is  desired  to  show 


90  MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS. 

signals  only  in  one  direction,  as  away  from  the  enemy.  To 
make  extempore  flash-signals  with  two  common  lanterns, 
one  may  be  made  red  by  a  thin  layer  of  red  bunting,  the 
other  be  left  plain.  Then  either  of  them  is  shown  as  the 
signal  "  one,"  the  other  as  the  signal  "  two."  The  pause- 
signal  is  made  by  an  interval  of  time,  or  by  a  wave  of  either. 
Or,  a  single  lantern  may  be  flashed  once  for  "  one,"  and 
twice  for  "  two,"  by  covering  it  with  a  bucket  or  hat,  as 
with  an  extinguisher;  and  lifting  the  covering  suddenly  for 
each  flash.  One  flash  is  then  shown  for  "  one,"  two  flashes 
put  together  for  "  two,"  three  flashes  for  the  pause-signal. 
A  good  way  to  show  either  colored  or  plain  lanterns,  is  to 
flash  them  by  placing  the  lantern  below  the  side  of  a  boat, 
or  top  of  a  fence,  and  then  raising  them  suddenly  into 
sight,  and  lowering  them  suddenly  to  make  each  signal. 
Then,  a  wave  of  the  lantern  to  make  a  pause-signal. 

Signals  by  two  elements,  with  colors,  extend  through 
such  as  are  made  with  colored  lights,  those  which  may  be 
signalled  with  composition  fires  of  two  different  hues,  and 
those  by  signal  balls  thrown  into  the  air,  as  are  the  balls  of 
a  roman  candle.  Any  flash  or  color  of  fire  or  light  may  in- 
dicate "one,"  any  other,  "two,"  or  any  kind  of  light  or 
torch  may  be  flashed  different  numbers  of  times.  The  pause 
is  conventional. 

Signals  by  Occultations. 

Day  signals  are  styled  "  signals  by  occupations,"  when 
any  object  is  brought  suddenly  into  view,  and  then  obscured 
or  hidden  at  different  times  or  for  different  lengths  of  time, 
for  the  purpose  of  making  signals.  The  appearances  of  the 
object  may  be  styled  "flashes,"  and  these  distinguished  by 
numbers,  as  one  flash,  two  flashes,  etc. ;  or  by  their  length, 
as  short,  long,  etc. 

Suppose  a  window-shutter  is  so  fitted  as  to  be  obscured 
by  turning  its  edge  to  the  observer,  and  is  then  flashed  or 


MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS.  91 

brought  wholly  into  view,  to  make  "  our  ;"  flashed  t  nice,  to 
make  "two;"  and  so  on.  A  long  obscuration  is  "three" 
"  3,"  pause-signal. 

Or  it  is  flashed  into  view  a  "  short  flash"  to  make  "  one  j" 
and  a  "long  flash"  to  make  "two." 

The  principles  of  working  and  of  reading  are  identical  with 
those  for  signalling  and  reading  other  flashes,  and  do  not  re- 
quire  illustration. 

The  signals  of  Commander  Colomb,  R.  N\,  now  used  in 
the  English  navy,  are  flashes  of  a  very  brilliant  light  at 
night,  and  of  a  shutter-shaped  signal  by  clay. 

Any  object  may  be  obscured  in  any  way  and  flashed  into 
sight  to  make  signals. 

Signals  by  Sound. 

Let  any  sound,  as  a  tap  on  a  light  drum,  stand  for  "  one" 
"  1 ;"  and  a  different  sound,  as  a  tap  on  a  bass  drum,  stand 
for  "two"  "  2  ;"  an  interval  of  time  to  mark  the  end  of  a 
letter ;  a  longer  interval,  the  end  of  a  word,  or  "  three"  "  3." 

Or  let  one  tap  of  a  drum  stand  for  "one,"  two  taps  stand 
for  "two:"  intervals,  for  end  of  letters  and  words. 

Or  let  a  short  blast  of  a  steam  trumpet  stand  for  "  one," 
a  long  blast  stand  for  "two;"  intervals,  for  end  of  letters 
and  words. 

Then  to  signal  "P"  "1212"  with  a  drum,  tap  "light, 
bass,  light,  bass,"  or  tap  "  once,  twice,  once,  twice."  Or  to 
sound  with  a  steam  trumpet,  sound  "short,  long,  short, 
long."  To  signal  "S"  "212,"  tap  "bass,  light,  Lass/'  or 
tap  "twice,  once,  twice,"  or  sound  "long,  short,  long;" 
and  so  for  whatever  signals. 

At  the  end  of  each  letter  and  word  a  pause  of  silence. 

How  anv  differing  sounds,  as  low  and  high  notes,  short 
and  lonu"  Masts,  heavy  and  light  tolls  of  greal  and  small 
bells;    or   differing    numbers    of  sounds,    as   one    and   two 


92  MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS. 

strokes,  one  and  two  blasts,  etc.,  may  be  used,  will  be  com- 
prehended from  the  preceding. 

Signals  may  be  made  by  bringing  any  object  to  a  deter- 
mined point  of  reference,  as  the  top  of  a  mast,  the  end  of  a 
yard,  etc.,  and  allowing  it  there  to  touch  for  different 
lengths  of  time,  or  a  different  number  of  times. 

Thus  a  flag,  starting  three  or  four  feet  from  the  top  of  a 
mast,  touches  the  top  a  second  for  "one"  "1 ;"  touches  it 
two  seconds  for  "two"  "2."  Intervals  are  allowed  for 
pauses. 

Or  it  touches  it  once  for  "  1,"  and  twice  for  "  2,"  with  in- 
tervals for  pauses. 

It  may  occur  that  it  will  be  necessary  to  display  signals 
at  an  elevation,  as  at  the  top  of  a  common  flao;-staff. 

The  example  at  Plate  VIII,  Fig.  9,  will  illustrate  the 
manner  in  which  this  may  be  done. 

Signals  by  Two  Elements  may  be  reduced  to  the  greatest 
simplicity  for  day  uses.  Practised  signalists  are  not  limited 
to  the  use  of  any  apparatus.  Thus,  a  handkerchief  or  hat 
held  in  the  hand  above  the  head,  and  waved  to  the  right 
for  "one"  "  1,"  to  the  left  for  "  two  "  "  2,"  and  lowered  to 
the  waist  for  "  three,"  is  legible. 

With  a  handkerchief  attached  to  a  walking-stick  or  a 
boat-flag,  or  regimental  marker,  or  any  light  cloth  on  any 
staff  or  tied  to  a  musket-barrel,  messages  may  be  sent  a 
mile  or  two,  or  to  even  greater  distances. 

A  man  standing  with  his  coat  off,  with  his  hands  touch- 
ing, upon  his  breast,  for  the  first  position,  making  a  wave 
of  his  right  arm  for  "one"  "  1 ;"  a  wave  of  his  left  arm  for 
"  two  "  "  2  ;"  dropping  both  arms  to  his  sides  for  "  three  " 
"  S  ;"  and  returning  always  to  the  first  position  after  each 
motion,  can  thus  transmit  any  message. 

Or,  having  a  fixed  place  to  start  from,  a  man  walks  a 


MANUAL  OF   SIGNALS.  93 

pace  or  two  to  the  left  for  "one,"  as  many  to  the  right   for 

"two,"  and  makes  a  sign,  at  a  fixed  point,  to  show  the  end 
of  a  word.  Or,  standing  in  view,  a  man  touches  any  two 
tilings  with  a  cane — as  a  drum  and  a  barrel.  He  touches 
the  drum  for  "one,"  the  barrel  for  "two."  He  waves  the 
cane  to  indicate  the  end  of  a  word.  Or  men.  placed  in  line 
three  or  four  at  a  time,  may  be  made  to  represent  letters. 
The  men  with  coats  on  maybe  "ones,"  those  with  coats 
off  "twos." 

Signals  of  two  elements  may  be  shown  with  any  kind  of 
semaphore. 

Strips  of  any  two  kinds  of  colored  cloth  may  be  sent  up 
on  the  halyards  of  a  common  flag-staff,  to  represent  any 
letter-signal  or  numeral-signals;  and  these  can  be  arranged 
by  being  shown  one  after  the  other  for  messages  to  be  tele- 
graphed in  words;  or  for  codes  of  message-signals  by  the 
rules  before  given. 

Codes  of  signals,  like  the  Naval  Flag-code,  may  be  thus 
prepared  when  masts  or  flag-staffs  must  be  used ;  or,  when 
it  is  desirable  that  a  signal,  as  from  an  invested  fort,  should 
be  hoisted  and  kept  flying  in  order  that  friendly  scouts,  any- 
where in  sight,  at  any  time  of  the  day,  may  be  able  to  see 
and  read  the  message,  or  copy  the  signal  in  numbers  for  the 
information  of  the  relieving  forces.  Simple  codes  may  be 
arranged  in  this  manner  between  ships  and  the  shore. 

To  all  these  modes  the  rules  before  given  for  Sending, 
Receiving,  Ordering,  and  Recording  Signals,  equally  apply. 


With  these  varied  examples  of  Day  and  Night  Signals, 
and  Signals  by  Sound,  it  seems  that  enough  have  been  given 
to  indicate  siguals  for  any  emergency.  With  that  thorough 
understanding  of  the  principles  it  has  been  tried  to  impress, 
the  means  for  communication  will  not  fail  to  BUggest  them- 
selves. 


94  MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS. 

Complicating  Signals. 

Codes  of  two  elements  may  be  complicated  for  Day  or 
Night  Signals. 

Let  all  the  positions  and  motions  which  can  be  made  on 
the  right  side  of  any  upright,  or  point  of  reference,  be  un- 
derstood as  "  ones."  All  the  positions  and  motions  which 
can  be  made  on  the  left  side  of  the  upright  or  point  of  ref- 
erence, be  understood  as  "  twos." 

When  transmitting  a  message  in  letter-signals  as  here 
enumerated,  and  by  this  plan,  no  signal  need  ever  twice 
appear  in  the  same  form,  or  as  composed  by  the  same 
m  otions. 

For  illustration,  suppose  that,  in  Fig.  4,  PI.  IV,  the  arm 
in  any  of  the  positions  a,  b,  c,  it  signals  "one"  "  1,"  and 
in  any  of  the  positions  e,  f,  g,  it  signals  "  two"  "  2."  It  is 
evident  that  in  the  signals  "  one,  two,  one,"  "12  1,"  the  let- 
ter "  C"  can  be  exhibited  in  many  different  ways ;  yet  all 
of  similar  meaning.  Thus  with  the  other  letters  of  the 
alphabet. 

So  any  color  may  be  "one"  "  1,"  and  all  other  colors 
"  two"  "  2  ;"  or  any  sound  may  be  the  "  one,"  and  all  others 
"  two ;"  and  thus  for  infinite  changes. 


The  motions  "  one"  and  "  two"  may  be  reversed,  if  there 
is  reason.  Thus  "  one"  or  "  1"  may  be  the  flag  waved  to 
the  ground  on  the  left,  and  then  returned  to  the  "first 
position."  "  Two"  may  be  the  flag  waved  to  the  ground  on 
the  right,  and  then  returned  to  "first  position."  This 
method  is  preferred  by  some.  The  following  Code — the 
Army  Code  of  two  elements,  used  during  the  War — is  sig- 
nalled after  this  manner: 


MANUAL  OF   SIGNALS.  95 

CODE   OF  TWO   ELEMENTS. 

(an  arrangement  op  two  symbols.) 


A— 11 

H— 211 

0—12 

B— 1221 

1—2 

P— 2121 

C— 212 

J— 2211 

Q— 2122 

V— 2111 

D— 111 

K— 1212 

R— 122 

W— 2212 

E— 21 

L— 112 

S— 121 

X— 1211 

F— 1112 

M— 2112 

T— 1 

Y— 222 

G— 1122    N— 22      U— 221     Z— 1111 
&— 2222   tion— 2221   ing— 1121 

Numerals. 

1—12221  4—11121  V— 22111 

2—21112         5—11112  8—22221 

3—11211  6—21111  9—22122         0—11111 

But  in  the  General  Service  Code  the  "one"  signal  has 
been  made  on  the  right  of  the  sending  signalist,  for  the 
reason  that,  so  made,  it  appears,  when  viewed  through  the 
telescope,  on  the  left  of  the  field  of  view  of  the  receiver; 
and  we  are  habituated  by  practice,  to  expect,  in  a  sequence, 
the  lesser  numbers  of  a  series  to  appear  first  and  at  our  left 
of  the  viewed  word  or  number.  The  signal  "  one"  made  on 
the  right  of  the  sending  signalist,  the  signal  "  two"  properly 
follows  on  his  left. 

We  gain  thus  the  aid  of  analogy  to  recognize  and  remem- 
ber the  numbers.  The  rule  that,  in  Alphabetic  Codes,  the 
letter-signals  should  be  each  of  a  certain,  and  all  of  the 
same  number  of  places,  has  not  been  followed.  To  make  all 
the  signal  letters  of  equal  length  in  a  code  of  two  elements, 
each  letter-signal  must  be  of  five  places.  Thi-  is  cum- 
bersome. 


96*  MANUAL  OF  SIGNALS. 


FIELD  SIGNALS  BY  THREE  ELEMENTS. 

An  advantage  of  signalling  by  three  elements  is,  that  the 
letters  of  the  alphabet  may  be  rej)resented,  using  three  ele- 
mentary signals  for  each  letter.  It  is  thus  possible  always 
to  determine  when  each  letter  has  been  fully  made  and  is 
completed.  With  three  symbols,  there  are  twenty-seven 
arrangements  of  three  places  each. 


ALPHABET  OF  THREE  ELEMENTS. 

(an  arrangement  of  three  symbols.) 

A— 112  F— 122  K— 323  P— 313  U— 233 

B— 121  G— 123  L— 231  Q— 131  V— 222 

C— 211  H— 312  M— 132  R— 331  W— 311 

D— 212  1—213  N— 322  S— 332  X— 321 

E— 221  J— 232  0—223  T— 133  Y— 111     Z— 113 

Code  Signals. 

3 — End  of  a  word. 

33 — End  of  a  sentence. 

333 — End  of  a  message. 

22.22.22.3— Signal  of  assent :  "I  understand,"  or  " Mes- 
sage is  received  and  understood,"  or  "  I  see  your  signals," 
or  affirmative  generally. 

22.22.22.333— Cease  signalling. 

121.121.121— Repeat. 

212121— Error. 

211.211.211— Move  a  little  to  the  right. 

221.221.221— Move  a  little  to  the  left. 

Flag  waved  successively  from  side  to  side  until  attention 
is  attracted — "Attention,  look  for  signals  from  this  point." 


MANUAL   OF   SKIN  \l.s.  '.1 7 

Numerals. 

1.  21112—  Wait  a  moment. 

2.  12221— Are  you  ready  ? 

3.  22122—1  am  ready. 

4.  22212 — Use  short  polo  and  small  flag. 

5.  22221 — Use  long  pole  and  large  flag. 

6.  12222— Work  faster. 

7.  11222— Did  you  understand  ? 

8.  11112— Use  white  Bag. 

9.  11211— Use  black  flag. 
0.  22222 — Use  red  flag. 

a — after.         b — before.         c — can.        h — have, 
n — not  r — are.  t — the.         u — you. 

ur — your.       w— word,        wi — with.       y — why. 

IXSTEUCTIONS    FOE    USING   THE    CODE. 

The  whole  number  opposite  each  letter  stands  for  that 
letter. 

The  numbers  are  made  by  the  motions  of  a  flag  or  signal 
to  the  right  or  left,  or  in  front  of  a  vertical  position. 

The  Roman  Letters  may  be  used  for  Numerals. 

The  Rules  before  given  for  Receiving,  Sending,. Ordering, 
and  Recording  Signals  apply  to  messages  transmitted  by 
this  code.  Each  letter-signal  is  ordered  by  itself,  and  as 
condensedly  as  may  be.  Thus  "  A,"  "  112,"  is  called  briskly 
"eleven  two;"  "H,"  "312,"  is  called  " thirty-one,  two ;" 
"X,"  "322,"  "three  twenty-two;*'  and  thus  on. 

In  the  same  manner  the  receiver,  seeing  made  signal 
"  three  t  hree  two,"  calls  or  writes  "  332,"  or  "  S."  F<  »r  "  two 
two  three,"  "223"  or  "  O"  is  written;  and  thus  for  what- 
ever combination. 


98  MANUAL  OF   SIGNALS. 

Day  Signals — Flags  in  Motion. 

There  being  furnished  the  Regulation  Set  of  Signal  Equip- 
ments, the  flagman  is  equipped  and  stands  as  described  for 
the  first  position. 

There  are  one  position  and  three  motions.  (Plates 
VI,  VII,  XII,  as  for  preceding  code.) 

The  first  position  is  with  the  flag  held  directly  above 
the  head  of  the  flagman,  the  staff  vertical,  the  butt  of  the 
staff  at  the  waist.     From  this  position  : 

To  make  the  first  motion,  or  "  one,"  "1,"  the  flag  is 
waved  to  the  ground  to  the  right,  and  instantly  brought  to 
the  first  position. 

To  make  the  second  motion,  "two,"  "2,"  the  flag  is 
waved  to  the  ground  to  the  left,  and  instantly  brought  to 
the  first  position. 

To  make  the  third  motion,  "  three"  "  3,"  the  flag  is 
waved  to  the  ground  in  front,  and  instantly  brought  to  the 
first  position. 

The  pause  or  space  signal  is  as  given  in  the  code — or 
an  especial  pause-signal  may  be  concerted,  as  a  wave  of  the 
flag  around  the  head,  etc. 

Each  letter-number  consists  of  three  figures. 

The  motions  of  the  flag  for  each  figure  follow  each  other 
without  any  pause  between  them  until  the  letter-number  is 
completed. 

Thus  to  make  "  G,"  or  "  one,  two,  three"  "  123,"  the  flag 
is  waved,  without  pause,  once  to  the  right,  once  to  the  left, 
once  to  the  front;  and  is  then  brought  to  the  first  position. 
To  make  "  K,"  "  three,  two,  three"  "  323,"  or  "three  twenty- 
three,"  the  flag  is  waved,  without  pause,  once  to  the  front, 
once  to  the  left,  once  to  the  front,  and  rests  at  the  first  po- 
sition— that  is,  one  "  third  motion,"  followed  by  one  "  second 
motion,"  followed  by  one  "  third  motion."  To  make  "  B," 
"  121"  "one  twenty-one,"  the  flag  is  waved  in  "  right,  front, 


Ready 


PLATE    XII 

Dav  Signals 


Motion  One       Motion   Two 
NSjJhl  Signals 


Mullein  Three 


MotOne"  Mot. ']V<> 


.Mnt  lint-.- 


l>;ty  Sl£»ii;\1>?  with    discs 
Figures 


First  Position         Motion      One 


Motion  Two      Motion     Three" 
Mol  3 

Mot   1  I 


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■ 


Kit  1" 


Motion  ]  2  M.'i  3 

J    ! 


Mm 


Mot    1        Mot   2  Mm     '• 


Mot  2 


MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS. 

right,"  and  rests  a1  first  position.  To  make  "F,"  "122," 
the-  flag  is  waved  "right,  left, left,"  and  rests  al  Hrsl  p< 
tion.  To  make  "22,"  the  flag  is  waved  "left,  left."  To 
make  "three  thirty  three"  "333,"  the  flag  is  waved  three 
times  to  the  front,  and  then  rests  at  the  first  position.  At 
the  end  of  each  letter,  the  flag  is  held  in  the  firsl  position 
about  two  seconds,  to  show  thai  the  letter  is  finished. 

A  difficulty  is  experienced  in  the  use  of  the  flag  for  sig- 
nals of  three  elements,  from  the  fact  that  in  the  third  mo- 
tion, or  motion  "front,"  the  edge  of  the  flag  is  towards  the 
observer,  and  the  flag- is  not  so  perfectly  visible.  The  flag 
may  be  improved  for  this  purpose  by  attaching  it  to  the 
staff  as  a  pennant,  with  a  swivel  or  string  permitting  mo- 
tion. (Plate  X,  Fig.  7.)  This,  however,  only  lessens  the 
difficulty.  For  common  uses,  any  article,  as  a  handkerchief 
or  a  hat  held  in  the  hand,  or  attached  to  a  short  staff,  may 
be  used  as  signals.  A  white  hall,  made  by  enwrapping 
some  article  with  white  cloth,  is  a  convenient  form  and 
always  visible.  The  manner  of  working  follows  the  general 
plan  above. 

Day  signals  by  three  elements  can,  of  course,  he  made 
with  any  three  distinct  motions  to  which  meaning  can  he 
given. 

As,  having  a  fixed  position  as  a  point  of  reference,  any 
visible  object  may  lie  moved  to  the  right  of  it  for  v-  !,"'  to 
the  left  of  it  for  "2,"  vertically  above  it  for  "3."  The 
"pause"  may  be  a  half  motion  on  either  side  the  reference. 
Tims  for  any  three  motions,  made  in  any  direction  relatively 
to  anv  point  of  reference,  the  modes  of  signalling  have  been 
sufficiently  illustrated.      (Plate  XII,  Fig.  10.) 

Night  Signals. 

Xi<dit  Signals,  made  with  the  Regulation  Signal  Equip- 
ment,  the  foot  and  flying  torches  and  twelve-toot  Bignal 
staff,  are  very  distinct  and  legible. 


100  MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS. 

To  make  night  signals,  the  signalman,  equipped  and 
standing  in  the  first  position,  holds  in  his  hand  the  signal 
stall'  with  flying  torch  attached,  filled  and  lighted.  The 
copper  foot-torch,  filled  and  lighted,  is  placed  at  his  feet 
and  directly  in  front.      (Plate  X,  XII.) 

The  instructions  for  working,  the  torch  positions,  motions, 
and  pauses  are  precisely  similar  to  those  hy  which  signals 
are  made  with  the  flag  by  day. 

Especial  directions  for  lighting,  extinguishing,  filling,  and 
managing  the  torches  are  already  given. 

Signals  made  in  this  way  are  as  brilliant  as  any  that  can 
be  made  with  torches. 

Lanterns  may  be  substituted  for  torches  on  shipboard. 
A  small  fire  kindled  on  the  ground  at  the  feet  of  the  flag- 
man, is  a  convenient  foot-light.  The  motions  may  be  then 
made  relatively  to  this  fire  as  the  point  of  reference.  The 
motions  may  be  made  with  a  torch,  lantern,  a  brand  from 
the  fire,  or  with  any  light  that  can  be  had,  having  any  fixed 
light  for  the  point  of  reference. 

Night  signals  may  be  made  by  any  light  which  can  be 
moved  with  any  three  distinct  motions  relatively  to  this 
point  of  reference.  Thus  the  moving  light  may  be  moved 
horizontally  on  the  right  for  "  1,"  horizontally  on  the  left  for 
"2,"  vertically  above  it  for  "3."  The  "pause"  may  be  as 
in  the  code,  or  a  motion  vertically  below  the  reference  point. 
(Plate  XII,  Figs.  10,  11.)  The  reference  light  must  always 
be  distinguished  by  brilliancy  or  by  color. 

So  with  two  lanterns:  one  maybe  placed  on  the  rail  of  a 
vessel  or  fixed  on  a  standard.  The  first  position  is  with  the 
lights  close  together.  First  motion,  "  1,"  moving  light  is 
carried  to  the  right  and  resumes  position.  Second  motion, 
"  2,"  moving  light  is  carried  to  the  left  and  resumes  posi- 
tion. Third  motion,  "  3,"  moving  light  is  carried  directly 
upwards ;   resumes  first  position.     Pause-signal   as  in  the 


PLATE  XIII 


Readv 


.Motion  T  Motion    '"J" 


Motion    "3" 


/ 


Motion     '4" 


6 


\ 


ki> 


iv> 


One  -four-three -four"  —  "1434" 


Motion  "five  -.V 


MANUAL  OF  SIGNAIfl.  K>1 

code;  or  a  half  motion  or  flourish  of  the  moving  light  close 
to  the  fixed  light      (See  Plans,  Plate  XI,  Fig.  5.) 

Day  Signals — Motions  of  Disks. 

nomographic  signals  are,  properly,  whatever  signals  an 

made  by  the  positions  or  motions  of  the  body  and  limbs  of 
a  man. 

Let  there  be  a  disk  or  disks  of  canvas,  one  foot  or  eigh- 
teen inches  in  diameter,  fitted  with  a  handle  to  be  grasped 
by  the  hand. 

There  are  one  position  and  three  motions.  (Plate  XII, 
Figs.  1,  2,  3.) 

To  take  the  first  position,  or  "  ready,"  the  signalman 
thus  equipped,  stands  holding  a  disk  in  his  right  hand,  at 
the  height  of  the  breast,  the  disk  laid  flat  upon  the  breast. 

The  signalman  so  placed — 

To  make  the  first  motion,  "one"  "1,"  the  right  hand 
and  disk  are  extended  obliquely  upward  above  the  head  at 
arm's  length,  and  on  the  right  side,  and  then  returned  t<> 
the  first  position. 

To  make  the  second  motion,  "two"  "  2,"  the  right  hand 
and  disk  are  extended  horizontally  at  arm's  length,  and  <>n 
the  right  side,  then  returned  to  the  first  position. 

To  make  the  third  motion,  or  "three"  "3,"  the  right 
hand  and  disk  are  extended  obliquely  downward,  at  arm's 
length,  and  on  the  right  side,  and  then  returned  to  the  first 
position. 

To  make  "pause-signal,"  wave  disk  once  around  the 
head,  then  return  to  first  position. 

In  making  letter-numbers,  the  motions  follow  each  other 
without  pause.  Thus,  to  make,  "M,"  "one,  three,  two" 
"  132,"  there  is  made  one  first  motion,  followed  by  one  third 
motion,  followed  by  one  second  motion.  To  make  "  K," 
''  three,  two,  three"  "  323,"  there  is  one  third  motion,  fol- 
lowed by  one  second  motion,  followed  by  one  third  motion. 


102  MAMJAl  OF  SIGNALS. 

To  make  "P,"  "313"  "three  thirteen,"  there  is  a  third  mo- 
tion, a  first  motion,  a  third  motion.     To  make  "  D,"  "  212," 
a  second  motion,  a  first  motion,  a  second  motion. 
A  pause  of  time  marks  the  interval  between  letters. 
Space  or  pause  signals  mark  ends  of  words  and  sentences, 
It  is  well,  when  disks  are  used,  to  have  a  second  disk  held 
in  the  left  hand,  and  at  the  height  of  and  upon  the  breast. 
This  gives  a  marked  point  of  reference. 

These  signals  are  sometimes  as  follows :  The  shoulders 
are  taken  as  a  point  of  reference.  Then  all  signals  made 
above  the  shoulders  are  read  for  "ones,"  "1."  All  signals 
made  horizontally  at  the  height  of  the  shoulder  are  read  for 
"  twos,"  "  2."  All  signals  made  below  the  shoulder  are 
read  for  "  threes,"  "  3." 

Thus,  if  one  disk  is  waved  above  the  shoulder  in  the  right 
hand,  on  the  right  side,  it  is  read  "one;"  or  if  it  is  raised 
in  the  left  hand,  on  the  left  side,  it  is  read  "one;"  or  if 
both  disks  are  raised  above  the  shoulders  in  both  hands,  on 
both  sides,  the  signal  is  read  "  one."  If  the  disk  is  extended 
horizontally  at  the  height  of  the  shoulder  in  the  right  hand, 
on  the  right  side,  the  signal  is  read  "  two ;"  or  if  the  disk  is 
extended  horizontally  in  the  left  hand,  on  the  left  side,  the 
signal  is  read  "two;"  or  if  both  disks  are  extended  hori- 
zontally in  both  hands,  on  both  sides,  the  signal  is  read 
"  two." 

Or  if  the  disk  is  extended  obliquely  downward  below  the 
shoulder  in  either  hand  or  on  either  side,  or  if  both  disks  are 
extended  obliquely  downward  in  both  hands  on  both  sides, 
the  signal  is  read  "three." 

In  this  way,  the  signal  "  one"  is  made  (PI.  XII)  whether 
the  disk  is  raised  as  at  Fig.  1,  or  Fig.  4,  or  Fig.  7.  The 
signal  "  two,"  whether  the  disk  is  as  at  Fig.  2,  or  Fig.  5,  or 
Fhjr.  8.  The  signal  "  three,"  whether  the  disks  are  as  at 
Fig.  3,  Fig.  6,  or  Fig.  '.'. 


MANUAL  OF  SIGNALS.  L03 

It  is  noted  only  to  read"one,"  ov  "two,"  or"three," 
whether  the  signal  is  above,  or  at,  or  below  the  shoulder. 

There  are  three  signals  for  each  single  reading.  Messages 
are  sometimes  transmitted  in  this  way,  the  signals  for  the 
same  letter  continually  varying. 

It  is  interesting  to  note  the  very  greal  variety  of  appear- 
ance that  may  be  given,  using  this  method,  to  the  signals 
of  the  same  message. 

The  letter  "  E,"  "  123,"  for  instance,  can  be,  withoul  other 
preconcert,  signalled  by  twenty-seven  differenl  signals,  each 
to  an  uninstructed  observer  unlike  any  other.  So  for  any 
other  letter  in  the  alphabet. 

The  general  forms  for  transmitting  the  message  are  as  by 
the  common  rules. 

So  with  colors,  any  two  or  three  colors  may  be  assumed 
to  read,  either  shown,  as  "one;"  any  two  other  colors  to 
read,  either  shown,  as  "  two."  Still  other  two  to  read,  either 
shown,  as  "  three." 

The  letter  "  E"  signalled  in  colors  may  be  represented  by 
any  of  numerous  arrangements.  It  will  be  seen  how  this 
plan  might  be  used  with  flags. 

So  with  sounds;  the  different  sounds  of  a  drum  may  be 
either  of  them  read  as  "one,"  the  sounds  of  a  bell  as  "two,"' 
the  sounds  of  a  bugle  as  "three,"  and  the  signals  thus  com- 
plicated. 

Rogers's  Semaphoric  Code  of  Signals  is  a  code  of  three 
elements.  It  is  skilfully  applied  for  use  on  shipboard  or  in 
boats. 

Night  Signals. 

The  Signalman  is  equipped  with  a  red  or  colored  lantern 
plaeed  at  the  height  of  the  waist,  ami  a  single  lantern  held 
in  the  hand. 

The  first  position,  or  "ready,"  is  with  both  lanterns  close 
together  at  the  height  of  the  waist. 


104  MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS. 

The  Positions,  Motions,  and  Pauses,  with  the  Lanterns 
held  in  the  hand  are,  for  Night  Signals,  precisely  similar  to 
those  described  for  the  Disks  for  Day  Signals.  (See  Plans, 
Plates  XI  and  XII.) 

Taking  the  shoulder  as  point  of  reference,  night  signals 
may  he  varied  in  the  same  manner  as  day  signals — a  white 
lantern  being  held  in  the  hand  in  place  of  the  disks ;  all 
signals  above  the  height  of  the  shoulder  being  counted 
"  one,"  all  at  the  height  of  the  shoulder  "  two,"  all  below 
the  height  of  the  shoulder  "three." 

Night  signals,  remaining  simple,  are  thus  apparently  com- 
plicated as  in  the  cases  described  for  the  day. 

Signals  by  Flashes  and  by  Occultations. 

Signals  of  three  elements  may  be  made  with  flashes  of 
light  of  any  three  colors,  as  by  the  flashing  signal-lantern 
before  described. 

To  make  "  oiie  "  "  1,"  press  the  handle  "  one  " —  a  white 
flash. 

To  make  "  two  "  "  2,"  press  the  handle  "  two  " — a  red 
flash. 

To  make  "  three  "  "3,"  press  the  handle  "  three" — a  green 
flash. 

The  flashes  for  each  letter  follow  each  other  without 
pause.     An  interval  of  darkness  is  the  space-signal. 

Thus,  to  signal  "  G,"  "  123,"  flash  "white,  red,  green." 

To  signal  "  M,"  "  132,"  flash  "white,  green,  reel." 

To  signal  "  O,"  "  223,"  flash  "  red,  red,  green." 

To  make  "  33,"  flash  "  green,  green." 

Or  to  signal  with  flashes  of  a  single  light,  flash  once 
for  "  one"  "  1 ;"  twice  for  "  two"  "  2  ;"  three  times  for 
"  three"  "  3."  Marked  intervals  of  darkness  to  indicate 
spaces. 


MANUAL   OF    SIGNALS.  L05 

Those  signals  may  be  made  with  common  lanterns  by 
flashing  them  from  backets  or  over  the  side  of  a  boat,  or 
over  a  fence.  A  plain  lantern  may  be  used  to  make  "  oni  8." 
A  lantern  covered  with  red  bunting  to  make  "  twos."     A 

lantern  covered  with  green  bunting-  to  make  "  threes."  <  >r 
a  single  lantern  may  be  used  if  necessary,  flashing  it  once 
for  "ones  ;"  twice  for  "twos  ;"  three  times  for  ,-  threes  :" 
a  wave  of  the  lantern  for  space-signal. 

These  modes  are  suggested  for  emergencies  only.  It  is 
generally  more  convenient  to  use  two  lanterns,  making  the 
signals  l>y  motions.  Many  plans  for  pyrotechnic  signals, 
in  which  are  used  white,  red,  and  green  colored  fires, 
are  signals  of  three  elements.  Codes  of  three  elements 
maybe  at  any  time  arranged  for  combinations  of  three  fires 
flashed  one  after  another  on  a  pan,  or  burned  one  after 
another  in  cases,  or  thrown  into  the  air,  as  balls  from  a 
Roman  candle. 

Day  signals  by  occultations  may  be  made  after  plans 
similar  to  those  here  o-iven  for  night  signals  with  a  single 
light — by  obscuring  any  object  and  flashing  it  suddenly  into 
view. 

Signals  by  Sound. 

Messages  may  be  transmitted  by  any  three  different 
sounds,  as  by  three  different  notes  of  a  bugle,  or  as  a  stroke 
on  a  bell  for  "  one"  "  1 ;"  two  strokes  for  "  two"  "  2  ;"  a  tap 
on  a  drum  for  "three"  "  3  :"  or  a  tap  on  a  light  drum  for  "  1 ;" 
two  taps  for  "2  ;"  a  tap  on  a  bass  drum  flu-  "  3  :"  or,  more 
simply,  one  tap  for  "  1,"  two  taps  for  "  2,"  three  taps  for  "  ■'■." 
In  this  case  the  taps  for  each  number,  as  "1,"  or  "2,"  or 
"3,"  must  be  made  very  quickly  and  closely  together.  So 
that,  for  instance,  "3"  made  by  three  close  quick  taps  may 
sound  very  differently  from  "  Y,'*  "  111,"  made  by  three  taps 
slowly  and  distinctly  gi>  en. 

5* 


106  MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS. 

The  general  applications  of  Codes  of  Three  Elements  are 
numerous.  The  signals  of  this  code  can  be  made  with  any 
kind  of  semaphore.  A  man  standing  with  his  coat  off  and 
throwing  out  his  right  arm  to  his  right  for  "one,"  his  left 
arm  to  his  left  for  "  two,"  and  his  arm  directly  above  his 
head  for  "three,"  can  transmit  any  message.  Or  the  arms 
may  be  waved  with  the  motions  described  to  be  made  by 
the  flag. 

Of  course  the  three  motions  or  positions  heretofore  de- 
scribed can  be  made  with  muskets,  or  branches,  or  flags,  or 
any  thing  that  can  be  held  and  moved  by  the  hands,  and  can 
be  distinctly  seen ;  or  any  three  things,  as  a  cap,  a  coat,  or 
a  handkerchief,  may  be  numbered  as  "one,"  or  "two,"  or 
"  three,"  and  hoisted  on  halyards,  being  first  properly  ar- 
ranged to  indicate  any  letter  or  numeral ;  or  three  strips  of 
different-colored  cloth  may  be  run  up  on  halyards ;  or  any 
three  things,  a  barrel,  a  basket,  and  a  pail,  may  be  shown  on 
a  pole  to  indicate  any  letter  or  numeral ;  or  three  men  may 
be  stood  together  in  view,  one  with  his  coat  on  for  "  one," 
one  with  his  coat  off  for  "  two,"  one  with  his  coat  half  off" 
for  "three ;"  each  to  throw  up  his  arms  as  often  as  the  num- 
ber he  stands  for  is  called :  any  combinations  may  be  made 
in  this  way. 

Or  three  men  standing  side  by  side,  and  numbered  "  one," 
"  two,"  "  three ;"  one  for  each  place  to  appear  in  the  .sig- 
nals. A  whole  signal  number  being  called,  each  takes  that 
position  which  indicates  the  first,  second,  or  third  numerals 
of  the  signal  number  called.  Thus,  "  one  twenty-three" 
"128"  being  called,  No.  1  takes  the  position  which  signals 
"  one"  "  1,"  No.  2  takes  the  position  "  two"  "  2,"  No.  3  takes 
the  position  "three"  "3;"  and^they  so  remain  until  the  sig- 
nal is  seen  and  recognized,  standing  as  in  Plate  XII,  Figs. 
1,2,3. 

Signals  of  three  elements,  though  not  of  such  infinite  ap- 
plication, or  so  constantly  available  as  those  of  two  elements, 


MANUAL    OF    SICNAI.S.  111? 

are  capable  of  many  beautiful  uses.  A  thorough  knowledge 
of  them  should  be  gained,  and  every  signalist  oughl  to 
practise  the  code  at  times.  Modes,  always  varying,  may  be 
multiplied  by  ingenuity. 


FIELD  SIGNALS  BY  FOUR  ELEMENTS. 

A  code  of  four  elements  may  be  any  arrangement  of  four 
symbols.   The  common  code  of  army  Bignals  has  been  drawn 

as  a  code  of  four  elements.  This  code  is  here  given  as  an 
illustration.  It  lias  l.een  superseded,  in  practice,  by  the 
"General  Service  ('0(10." 

The  signal  orders  in  a  Code  of  Four  Elements  particularly 
describe  each  motion.  Those  long  habituated  to  such  an 
enumeration  become  attached  to  it  and  prefer  it.  The  code 
thus  arranged  is  here  given. 

ALPHABET  OF  FOUR  ELEMENTS  FOR  FLAGS 

IX  MOTIOX. 

(an  arrangement  op  four  symbols.) 


A— 11 

II- 

-231 

0—14 

B— 1423 

I- 

-2 

P—2343 

C— 234 

J- 

-2231 

Q— 2342 

V— 2311 

D— 111 

K- 

-1434 

H — 142 

\V_2234 

E— 23 

L- 

-114 

S— 1  t:: 

X— 1  131 

F— 1114 

M- 

-2314 

T— 1 

Y— -  - 

G— 1142 

N- 

-22 

U— 223 

Z— 1111 

&— 2222 

inp:— 

0 

-1143             tion- 

2223 

103  MANUAL  OF   SIGNALS. 

Code  Signals. 

5 — End  of  a  word. 

55 — End  of  a  sentence. 

555 — End  of  a  message. 

11.11.11.5 — Signal  of  assent:  "I  understand,"  or  "Mes- 
sage is  received  and  understood,"  or  "  I  see  your  signals,"  or 
affirmative  generally. 

11.11.11.555 — Cease  signalling. 

234.234.234— Repeat.  " 

143434— Error. 

142.142.142 — Move  a  little  to  the  right. 

1 14.114.114— Move  a  little  to  the  left. 

Flag  waved  successively  from  side  to  side  until  attention 
is  attracted — "Attention,  look  for  signals  from  this  point." 

Numerals. 

1—14223 — Wait  a  moment. 

2—23114 — Are  you  ready? 

3—11431 — I  am  ready. 

4 — 11143 — Use  short  pole  and  small  flag. 

5—11114 — Use  long  pole  and  large  flag. 

6— 23111— Work  faster. 

V— 22311—  Did  you  understand? 

S— 22223— Use  white  flasr. 

9— 22342— Use  black  fla^. 

0—11111— Use  red  flag. 

Day  Signals — Motions  of  Flags. 

The  code  is  given  as  it  has  been  used  in  the  Army. 
There  are  one  position  and  five  motions. 
There  being  furnished  the  Regulation  set  of  Signal  Equip- 
ments— 


MANUAL  OF   SIGNALS.  1 1  I.I 

To  take  the  first  position,  "  ready,"  the  signalman  stands 
with  the  signal  staff  in  his  hand,  the  Hag  vertically  above 
the  head. 

So  placed — 

To  make  the  first  motion,  "one"  "  1,"  the  flag  and  staffi 
are  waved  to  the  ground  to  the  left  of  the  flagman  ;  resume 
the  first  position. 

To  make  the  second  motion,  "two"  "2,"  the  flag  and 
staff  are  waved  to  the  ground  on  the  right  of  the  flagman  ; 
resume  the  first  position. 

By  the  third  motion,  "  three"  "  3,"  is  described  the  halt 
circle  wave  of  the  flag  from  the  ground  on  the  righl  to  the 
ground  on  the  left  of  the  flagman.  Flag  resumes  the  first 
position. 

By  the  fourth  motion,  "four"  "4,"  is  described  the  half 
circle  wave  of  the  flag  from  the  ground  on  the  left  to  the 
ground  on  the  right  of  the  flagman.  Flag  resumes  the  first 
position. 

Fifth  motion,  "five"  "5,''  "pause-signal"  flag  waved  to 
the  ground  directly  in  front,  then  returned  to  first  position. 

To  make  "  O,"  "  14"  "fourteen,"  commence  a  firsi  motion 
to  the  ground  on  the  left,  followed  by  a  fourth  motion  ;  re- 
sume the  first  position. 

To  make  " B,"  "1423"  "fourteen  twenty-three,"  com- 
mence a  first  motion  to  the  ground  on  the  left,  followed  by 
a  fourth  motion,  then  a  second  motion,  then  a  third  motion  ; 
resume  the  first  position. 

To  make  "  C,"  "  234"  "  two  thirty-four,"  commence  a  sec- 
ond motion,  followed  by  a  third  motion,  followed  by  a  fourth 
motion  ;  resume  the  first  position. 

To  make  "D,"  "  111"  "one  eleven,"  make  a  firsi  motion 
thrice. 

Plate  XIII,  Figs.  1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  will  clearly  illustrate  the 
motions. 

The  same  movements  of  the  flag  made  together  indicate 


110  MANUAL   OF    SIGNALS. 

each  letter  in  the  code  of  four  as  in  the  code  of  two  ele- 
ments. 

For  the  general  use  of  flag  motions,  as  in  the  General 
Service  or  for  common  use,  the  enumeration  by  two  ele- 
ments, as  for  the  General  Service  Code,  is  preferable. 

Day  Signals  by  Positions  of  Disks. 

The  eode  with  this  arrangement  permits  each  letter  to  be 
represented  by  four  positions  of  disks  or  other  signals,  as 
well  as  by  the  different  motions  of  flags. 

Thus,  the  signalman  standing  equipped,  a  disk  held  in  the 
hand — 

There  are  one  position  and  four  motions. 

First  position,  disk  at  the  height  of  and  flat  upon  the 
breast. 

First  motion,  hand  and  disk  obliquely  above  the  head  on 
the  left  side;  return  to  first  position. 

Second  motion,  hand  and  disk  obliquely  down  on  the  left 
side  ;  return  to  first  position. 

Third  motion,  hand  and  disk  obliquely  above  the  head  on 
the  right  side ;  return  to  first  position. 

Fourth  motion,  hand  and  disk  obliquely  down  on  the 
right  side  ;  return  to  first  position. 

Pause  or  Space  signal,  "5,"  a  wave  of  the  disk. 

To  make  "  O,"  "  14,"  make  a  first  motion,  then  a  fourth 
motion. 

To  make  "  B,"  "  1423,"  make  the  first,  fourth,  second,  and 
third  motions. 

To  make  "  C,"  "  234,"  make  motions  second,  third, 
fourth. 

For  "D,"  "  111,"  make  the  first  motion  thrice. 

For  "  5,"  a  wave  of  the  disk. 

These  motions  are  so  numbered  as  to  correspond  with  the 
enumeration  giyen  the  flag  motions. 


MANUAL   OF  SIGNALS.  1  1  I 

As  a  general  rule  in  signalling,  the  lesser  cumbers  ought 
to  be  made  on  the  right  of  the  signalist. 

In  this  way.  this  code  may  be  signalled  by  any  four  posi- 

tions  or  motions. 

Night  Signals. 

Night  signals  are  made,  for  this  code,  there  being  fur- 
nished the  Regulation  Signal  Equipment,  by  motions  of 
torches,  a  flying  and  a  foot  torch.  Or  by  motions  and 
positions  of  lanterns,  the  signalman  being  equipped  with  a 

reference  lantern  fixed  at  the  waist,  and  a  moving  light,  to 
be  moved  by  the  hand. 

The  Positions,  Motions,  Pauses,  etc.,  of  the  signal  lights  at 
night,  are  similar  for  the  same  signals  to  those  described  for 
these  signals  with  the  flags  or  disks  by  day. 

The  Ordering  and  Recording  of  signals,  the  general  rules 
for  the  management  of  apparatus,  and  for  the  sending  and 
receiving  of  messages,  are  as  in  other  modes  of  signalling. 

This  code  affords  an  illustration  of  the  mode  by  which 
any  code  of  two  elements  may  be  commuted  into  one  of 
four  elements. 


A  code  of  four  elements,  in  which  each  letter  is  repre- 
sented by  a  signal  of  a  determinate  number  of  places,  is  as 

follows : 

ALPHABET  OF  FOUR  ELEMENTS. 

(as  arrangement  op  four  symbols.) 

A— 121  F— 414  K— 344  P— 412  U—  413 

B— 212  G— 424  L— 434  Q— 213  V— 314 

C— 131  H— 242  M— 321  R— 214  W-    234 

D— 313  1—323  N— 312  S— 341  X— 432 

E— 141  J— 232  0—421  T— 143  Y— 342       Z     324 


112  MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS. 

3 — End  of  a  word. 

33 — End  of  a  sentence. 

333 — End  of  a  message. 

22.22.22.3— Signal  of  assent:  "I  understand,"  or " Mes- 
sage is  received  and  understood,"  or  "  I  see  your  signals," 
or  affirmative  generally. 

22.22.22.333 — Cease  signalling. 

121.121.121— Repeat. 

212121— Error. 

211.211.211 — Move  a  little  to  the  right. 

221.221.221— Move  a  little  to  the  left. 

Disk  waved  successively  from  side  to  side  until  attention 
is  attracted — "Attention,  look  for  signals  from  this  point." 

a — after.         b — before.         c — can.         h — have, 
n — not.  r — are.  t — the.  u — you. 

ur — your.        w — woi-d.         wi — with.       y — why. 

A  disk  is  used  instead  of  a  flag. 

In  this  code  each  letter-signal  is  a  signal  of  three  places. 
The  numerals  may  be  represented  by  the  Roman  letters. 

The  signals  for  end  of  word,  Clause,  Error,  Assent,  etc., 
already  given,  are  made  with  the  same  motions,  the  Disk 
held  in  the  hand  being  used  instead  of  the  Flag,  as  in  the 
General  Service  Code. 

Especial  combinations  may  be  devised  for  these  signals, 
if  such  are  preferred  for  any  reason. 

These  should  be  each  of  say  two  places,  to  clearly  distin- 
guish them  from  the  letter  combinations. 

The  General  Rules  for  Sending,  Receiving,  Ordering,  and 
Recording  are  as  for  the  preceding  Codes. 

Day   Signals. 

There  are  one  position  and   four  motions.     (Plate  XIV.) 
First    Position  :-   The    signalman,    standing   equipped, 


PLATE  XIV. 


Day  Signals  with  discs. 

Figures 

1 


*c 


r.'1'..s  llt^xlv'      Motion"!  Motion '2  Motion '3  Motion    l 


r 


.". 


/  •■•!- 


■I' 


- 


1       "1 


3  ■ 


"3" 


temH*&&l 


Semaphore  Pos.  12.3.4:.    Semaphore  Pos.l2.3.4r.  Positions  of  Muskel 

on  either  Side. 


MANUAL  OF  SIGNALS.  113 

holds  in  his  hands  a  disk  at  the  height  of  and  laid  flal  upon 

the  breast. 

To  make  the  first  motion,  or  "  one"  "  I,"  the  righl  hand 

and  disk  are  extended  obliquely  upward  above  the  head  at 
arm's  length  and  on  the  right  side,  then  returned  to  the  firsl 

position. 

To  make  the  second  motion-,  or  "two"  "2,"  the  righl 
hand  and  disk  are  extended  obliquely  downward  at  arm's 
length  and  on  the  right  side,  then  returned  to  the  iirst  posi- 
tion. 

To  make  the  third  motion,  or  "three"  "3,"  the  left 
hand  and  disk  are  extended  obliquely  upward  at  arm's 
length  and  on  the  left  side,  then  returned  to  the  first  posi- 
tion. 

To  make  the  fourth  motion,  or  "four"  "4,"  the  left 
hand  and  disk  are  extended  obliquely  downward  at  arm's 
length  and  on  the  left  side,  then  returned  to  the  first  posi- 
tion. 

To  make  pause  or  space  signal,  hand  and  disk  waved 
around  the  head. 

Thus  to  make  "  F,"  "  414,"  the  hand  and  disk  are  extend- 
ed slowly  obliquely  downward  on  the  left  side,  then  re- 
turned to  first  position  ;  then,without  pause,  extended  slowly 
obliquely  upward  and  on  the  right  side,  then  returned  to 
first  position;  then,  without  pause,  again  extended  slowly 
obliquely  downward  and  on  the  left  side,  then  returned  to 
and  rests  at  first  position  ;— that  is,  there  is  made  one  fourth 
motion,  followed  by  one  first  motion,  followed  by  one  fourth 
motion. 

To  make  "  X,"  "312,"  there  are  made,  without  pause, 
one  third  motion,  one  first  motion,  one  second  motion. 

To  make  "S,"  "341,"  there  are  one  third  motion,  one 
fourth  motion,  one  first  motion. 

To  make  "  C,"  "  131,"  there  are  one  first,  one  third,  one 
first. 


Hi  MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS. 

To  make  pause-signal,  "5,"  disk  may  be  waved  about 
the  head. 

To  make  clause-signal,  "  55"  the  disk  may  be  waved 
twice  about  the  head.  In  place  of  these  signals  (pause  and 
clause)  the  "Code  Signals,"  as  given  at  page  127,  are  gener- 
ally used. 

In  this  way  for  whatever  signals. 

Night    Signals. 

For  night  signals,  the  signalman  equipped  as  before  de- 
scribed, with  reference  light  and  moving  light  or  lantern 
held  in  hand.  The  position  "ready"  is  as  illustrated  at 
1 'late  XIV:  a  lantern  held  in  the  hand  instead  of  a  disk.  The 
signals  are  made  for  the  same  numerals  and  with  the  same 
motions  as  those  described  for  signals  by  day. 

General  Applications. 

Following  these  plans,  any  code  of  four  elements  may  be 
indicated  by  any  object  by  day,  or  light  by  night,  that  can 
be  put  in  any  four  positions,  or  made  to  describe  any  four 
motions  relatively  to  any  fixed  object  or  light  taken  as  a 
point  of  reference. 

Thus  the  positions  may  be  the  four  positions  of  the  arm  of 
a  semaphore,  as  at  Plate  XIV,  Fig.  6,  the  upright  forming  the 
point  of  reference,  and  the  arm  as  at  "  1,"  being  in  the  first 
position. 

Or  four  positions  made  with  a  musket  held  in  the  hand, 
as  at  Plate  XIV,  Fig.  7,  the  musket  held  vertically  being 
the  position  "ready." 

Or  the  motions  might  be  any  thing  moved  above,  below, 
to  the  right  and  to  the  left  of  any  selected  object. 

Or  of  any  light  or  torch  so  moved  relatively  to  some  dis- 
tinguishable fixed  light :  a  half  motion  making  the  space- 
signal.     (Plate  IV,  Figs.  G,  7.) 


M  SJNTJAL   OF   SIGNALS.  1  1  5 

Or  signals  of  four  elements  maj  be  made  with  the  flash- 
ing signal-lanterns :  as  one  white  flash  for  "one,"  two  white 
Hashes  for  "-two,"  one  red  flash  for  "three,"  two  red  flashes 
for  "four;"  a  green  Hash  may  be  k-  pause." 

Or  four  different  sounds  may  be  used  :  one  lap  on  a  small 
drum  for  "  one,"  two  taps  for"two,"one  tap  <>n  a  large 
drum  fur  "  three,"  two  taps  for  "  four."     Or  one  short  blast 

of  a  horn  for  "one,""  two  short    blasts  tor  "two,"  one   long 
blast  for  "three,"  two  long  Masts  tor  "four.'' 

Or  four  different  sorts  of  flags  or  strips  of  cloth,  differing 
by  colors  or  by  shape,  may  ho  hoisted  on  halyards  for  any 
of  the  combinations  of  signals  of  this  order.  Or  four  dif- 
ferent  sorts  of  the  most  common  things,  as  caps,  coat-, 
handkerchiefs,  and  boots,  shown  on  halyards  or  on  a  stall'  in 
proper  arrangements,  will  make  any  of  the  different  signals. 
(Plate  XIV,  Fig.  9.) 

Signals  of  four  elements  may  be  complicated,  as  has  been 
illustrated  in  the  case  of  signals  of  three  elements,  by  caus- 
ing several  different  signals  to  stand  for  the  same  clement. 

Thus  with  a  semaphore,  by  which  can  be  shown  eight 
positions  of  the  arms:  Let  any  two  positions  stand  for 
"one,"  two  different  and  distinct  positions  for  "two,"  two 
other  distinct  positions  for  "three,"  two  other  positions  for 
"tour."     (Plate  XIY,  Fig.  8.) 

Working  thus,  a  code  of  four  may  seem  to  be  a  code  of 
eight  elements. 

Signals  of  four  elements  are  not  so  diversely  available  as 
those  of  two  or  three  elements.  The  availability  of  signals 
diminishes  in  proportion  as  the  elementary  numbers  or 
number  of  the  order  of  the  signals  increases.  Signals  of 
four  elements  ought,  however,  to  be  carefully  si  tidied.  They 
are  capable  of  many  interesting  applications. 


116  MANUAL  OF  SIGNALS. 


FIELD  SIGNALS  BY  FIVE  ELEMENTS. 

Alphabetic  codes  of  five  elements  have  this  .advantage : 
that  the  letter-signals  of  alphabets  constructed  by  the  ar- 
rangement of  five  symbols  need  require  but  two  combined 
signals  for  any  letter  of  the  alphabet, — there  being  with  five 
elements  twenty-five  arrangements  of  two  places.  This  re- 
membered, it  is  known  with  certainty  that  each  pair  of  sig- 
nals seen  indicate  a  letter,  and  that  it  is  completed. 

A  code  of  five  elements  might  be  as  follows : 

ALPHABET   OF  FIVE  ELEMENTS. 


i 

[an  arrangement  of 

FIVE    STMBOLS.) 

A— 11 

F- 

-12 

K— 13 

F— 14 

U 

&  y_i5 

B— 21 

G- 

-22 

L— 23 

Q— 24 

W— 25 

C— 31 

II- 

-32 

M— 33 

R— 34 

X— 35 

D— 41 

I- 

-42 

N— 43 

S— 44 

Y— 45 

E— 51 

J- 

-52 

0—53 

T— 54 

Z— 55 

The  conventional  signals,  "  error,"  "  assent,"  "  repeat," 
etc.,  are  made  in  the  same  manner  as  described  for  the  Gen- 
eral Service  Code  of  two  elements ; — the  Disk  being  waved 
instead  of  the  Flaar. 

3 — End  of  a  word. 

33 — End  of  a  sentence. 

333 — End  of  a  message. 

22.22.22.3— Signal  of  assent:  " I  understand,"  or  "Mes- 
sage is  received  and  understood,"  or  "  I  see  your  signals," 
or  affirmative  generally. 

22.22.22.333— Cease  signalling. 

121.121.121— Repeat. 


PLATE  XV. 


Day  or  Night  Signals. 
Lanterns  &r  Discs 


v 


2W 


Musket  Positions 

1 


2  \ 


/      4r 


\  5 


Positions  L2.3.4.5.        Positions  L2.3.4.5. 


Positions  1.2. 3.4.5. 


Day  or  Night  Signals  Discs  or  Lanterns. 
Fig.t.  Fig.  5.     £>      ^.  Fig. 


Mot .  one  -five -15      Mot  three  -  four- 3-1 


Mot .  two  -  two  -  22 


ffijj-       .^^^iLanterns  above  a  Screen^.^  ^^         ^S 


Fig.  7. 


'"^^   S,.^ 


"2" 


"4" 

Semaphore  of  Polybius  ,i  tf  4  & 


ls_{    Column 


4_    letter-  14 


MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS.  J  17 

212121— Error. 

211.211.211 — Move  a  little  to  the  right. 

221.221.221— Move  a  little  to  the  left. 

Disk  waved  successively  from  side  to  side  until  attention 
is  attracted — "Attention,  look  for  signals  from  this  point." 

Abbreviations. 

a — after.  b — before.  c — can.         h — have, 

n — not.  r — are.  t — the.         u — yon. 

ur — your.  w — word.  wi — with.       y — why. 

The  letters  are  symbolized,  and  are  to  be  used  as  has  been 
described  for  other  alphabets. 

The  Roman  letters  are  to  be  used  for  numerals. 

The  signals  "error,"  "repeat,"  etc.,  may  he  as  given,  or 
they  may  be  signified  by  arrangements  of  three  places. 

The  General  rules  of  Sending,  Receiving,  Ordering,  and 
Reading  signals  are  applied  with  this  code. 

Day  Signals  by  Positions  and  Motions. 

The  signalman,  standing  equipped,  holds  in  each  hand  a 
signal  disk  or  other  visible  object. 

There  are  one  position  and  five  motions.     (Plate  XV.) 
To  make  the  first  position,  or  "  ready,"  the  signalman, 
standing  equipped,  and  directly  facing  the  point  of  commu- 
nication, holds  in  each  hand  a  signal  disk  at  the  height  of 
and  fiat  upon  the  breast. 

The  signalman,  being  equipped  and  placed — 
To  make  the  first  motion,  "one"  "1,"  the  right   hand 
and  disk  are  extended  slowly  directly   upward   at   arm's 
length  and  above  the  head,  and  then  returned  to  the  first 
position. 

To  make  the  second  motion,  "two"  "2,"  the  right  hand 


118  MANUAL   OF    SIGNALS. 

and  disk  are  extended  slowly  obliquely  upward  at  arm's 
length  and  on  the  right  side,  and  then  returned  to  the  first 
position. 

To  make  the  third  motion,  "  three"  "  3,"  the  right  band 
and  disk  are  extended  slowly  obliquely  downward  at  arm's 
length  and  on  the  right  side,  and  then  returned  to  the  first 
])Osition. 

To  make  the  fourth  motion,  "  four"  "  4,"  the  left  hand 
and  disk  are  extended  slowly  obliquely  upward  at  arm's 
length  and  on  the  left  side,  and  then  returned  to  the  first 
position. 

To  make  the  fifth  motion,  "  five"  "  5,"  the  left  hand  and 
disk  are  extended  slowly  obliquely  downward  at  arm's 
length  and  on  the  left  side,  and  then  returned  to  the  first 
position.     (Plate  XY,  Figs.  1,  4,  5,  6.) 

Pause  or  space  signal,  "  six"  "  6,"  a  wave  of  the  disk 
around  the  head. 

Thus  to  signal  "  IT,"  "  one  five"  "  15,"  the  right  hand  and 
disk  are  extended  directly  above  the  head  and  then  brought 
back  to  the  first  position,  when,  without  pause,  the  left  hand 
and  disk  are  extended  obliquely  downward  on  the  left  and 
brought  back  to  first  position — that  is,  there  is  made  one 
first  motion,  followed  instantly  by  a  fifth  motion. 

To  signal  "  W,"  "  two  five"  "  25,"  the  right  hand  and  disk 
are  extended  obliquely  upward  on  the  right  and  brought 
back  to  first  position  ;  then,  without  pause,  the  left  hand  and 
disk  are  extended  obliquely  downward,  and  on  the  left,  and 
brought  back  to  first  position; — that  is,  there  is  made  one 
second  motion,  followed  by  one  fifth  motion. 

To  signal  "Z,"  "five  five"  "55,"  the  left  hand  and  disk 
are  twice  extended  obliquely  downward  on  the  left  without 
pause,  and  each  time  brought  back  to  first  position. 

To  make  "clause  signal,"  "six  six"  "66,"  the  right  hand 
and  disk  are  waved  twice  around  the  head. 


MANUAL   I  F   SIGNALS.  11'.) 

To  signal  "Y,"  "four  five"  "45,"  make  a  fourth  motion, 
followed  by  a  tilth  motion. 

To  make  "  IV  "three  two*'  "thirty-two"  "32,"  make  a 

third  motion,  followed  by  a  second  motion. 

To  make  "two  four  five"  "245,"  make  a  second  motion, 
followed  by  a  fourth  motion,  followed  by  a  fifth  motion. 
And  thus  for  whatever  combinations  of  this  order. 

Night  Signals. 

The  Signalman,  equipped,  has  fixed  at  the  waist  a  refer- 
ence light,  and  holds  a  lantern  in  the  right  hand. 

The  position  "ready,"  is  with  both  lanterns  close  to- 
gether at  the  height  of  the  waist. 

There  are  one  position  and  five  motions. 

The  Positions,  Motions,  and  General  Instructions  for 
night  signals  are  similar  to  those  to  be  followed  in  making 
signals  by  day. 

The  distinctness  of  night  signals,  with  lanterns,  may  he 
augmented  by  attaching  a  short  rod  to  the  moving  lantern. 
The  distance  between  the  lights  is  thus  increased  in  signal- 
ling. 

Or  signals  of  five  elements  may  be  made  at  night  by 
showing  five  lights  in  different  positions  relatively  to  a  cen- 
tral or  fixed  light.  The  central  light,  distinguished  always 
by  eolor  or  brilliancy  from  the  signal  lights,  burns  steadily. 
The  other  lights,  to  each  of  which  a  number  is  assigned,  as 
one.  two.  three,  etc.,  are  screened  dark;  and  each  is  shown 
only  when,  and  in  the  order  that,  its  number  is  called.  The 
central    light   is  flashed   to  make  the  pause  or  space  signals. 

Signals  may  be  made  with  plain  lights:  showing  one 
light  for  "one,"  two  lights  for  "two,"  three  lights  for 
'•three,"  four  lights  for  "four,"  five  lights  for  "five."  A 
waving  light  for  "  pause-signal." 

In  this  case,  the  first  numeral  of  any  letter-signal  is  shown 


110  MANUAL   OF  SIGNALS. 

by  the  light  placed  on  the  right  of  the  signalist ;  the  second 
numeral  by  those  placed  on  the  left  of  the  signalist. 

Thus,  to  make  "two  three"  "23,"  show,  at  the  same  mo- 
ment, two  lights,  nearly  together,  for  "  two,"  and  three  lights 
at  a  little  distance  to  the  left  of  these  for  "  three."  (See 
Plate  XV,  Fig.  7.) 

To  signal  "  four  four"  "  44,"  show  four  lights  on  the  right 
and  four  on  the  left. 

Signals  by  Flashes  and  Occultattons. 

Signals  may  be  made  with  flashes  of  a  single  light :  as  one 
flash  for  "  one,"  two  flashes  for  "  two,"  three  flashes  for 
"  three,"  four  flashes  for  "  four,"  five  flashes  for  "  five ;"  a 
long  flash  for  "  pause-signal,"  or  "  end  of  word." 

Short  intervals  of  time  separate  the  component  signals  of  a 
letter.    Longer  intervals  mark  the  completion  of  each  letter. 

Thus,  to  make  "H,"  "three  two"  "32,"  make  three 
flashes ;  a  pause  of  one  second,  then  two  flashes. 

To  make  "N,"  "four  three"  "43,"  make  four  flashes;  a 
pause  of  one  second,  then  three  flashes. 

To  make  "B,"  "21,"  two  flashes;  a  pause,  one  flash. 

To  make  "  33,"  three  flashes  ;  a  pause,  three  flashes. 

A  longer  pause,  as  of  two  or  three  seconds,  is  made  after 
each  letter  or  completed  signal. 

And  on  this  plan  Day  Signals  may  be  made  by  objects 
flashed  suddenly  into  view  and  then  obscured  or  hidden. 
The  mechanical  devices  by  which  such  effects  may  be  pro- 
duced are  numerous. 

Thus,  a  handkerchief,  held  in  the  hand,  may  be  waved  into 
view — as  by  suddenly  throwing  out  and  bringing  back  the 
arm,  once  for  "one,"  twice  for  "two,"  three  times  for 
"  three,"  and  so  on.  Any  message  may  be  transmitted  in 
this  manner. 

And  on  this  plan  a  single  light  or  a  shutter  may  be  flashed 
for  Night  or  Day  signals. 


manual  of  signals.  121 

Signals  by  Sound. 

Signals  may  be  made  by  sounds:  as  the  tolls  of  a  bell, 
mots  of  a  horn  or  bugle,  or  taps  of  a  drum — sounding  one 
tap  for  "one,"  two  taps  for  "two,"  three  taps  for  "three." 
four  taps  for  "four,"  five  taps  for  "five." 

Thus,  to  make  "35,"  three  taps,  a  pause,  five  taps.  To 
make  ^  23,"  two  taps,  a  pause,  three  taps.  To  make  "  41," 
four  taps,  a  pause,  one  tap.  Brief  intervals  of  time  mark 
the  end  of  each  letter-signal.  Longer  intervals  indicate  the 
completion  of  each  word. 


Signals  may  be  made  with  any  five  motions  or  any  five 
positions  of  any  object  relatively  to  any  fixed  point  selected 
as  a  point  of  reference. 

Field  signals  may  be  made  by  any  five  positions  of  the 
arm  of  a  semaphore,  as  Plate  XV,  Fig.  2. 

The  position  "ready,"  is  with  the  arm  as  at  Fig.  2.  The 
other  positions  are  sufficiently  indicated  by  the  figure. 

In  signalling  by  five  elements,  the  arm  of  the  semaphore, 
or  whatever  object  is  used  as  the  signal,  may  remain  in  each 
of  the  signal  positions  whatever  length  of  time  the  signalist 
determines  is  necessary  to  enable  it  to  be  clearly  seen. 

Or  field  signals  of  five  elements  may  be  made  with  any 
fi\  e  positions  of  any  visible  object ;  as  a  flag,  a  rod,  or  a  gun, 
held  in  the  hands:  a  musket  may  be  used,  some  article  be- 
ing  attached  to  make  it  more  plainly  visible.  (Plate  XV, 
Fig.  3.) 

The  position  "ready,"  the  flag  or  gun  held  in  the  hands 
vertically,  and  directly  in  front  of  the  signalman. 

The  first  position,  "one"  "  1,"  flag  or  gun  held  vertically 
and  directly  above  the  head. 

The  second  position,  "  two"  "  2,"  musket  inclined  obliquely 
upward  and  to  the  right. 

6 


122  MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS. 

The  third  position,  "  three"  "  3,"  musket  inclined  obliquely 
downward  and  to  the  right. 

The  fourth  position,  "  four"  "4,"  musket  inclined  obliquely 
upward  and  to  the  left. 

The  fifth  position,  "five"  "5,"  musket  inclined  obliquely 
downward  and  to  the  left. 

Pause  or  space  signal,  "  six"  "  6,"  a  wave  or  flourish  of  the 
musket. 

These  positions  are  illustrated  by  the  positions  of  the  mus- 
ket as  seen  in  the  plate. 

In  this  way,  to  make  the  signal  "  15,"  take  the  first  posi- 
tion and  then  the  fifth  position. 

To  make  "  32,"  take  the  third  position  and  then  the  sec- 
ond position. 

To  make  "  33,"  make  the  third  position  twice. 

Or  five  different  things,  as  flags,  or  strips  of  cloth,  or  any 
five  different  distinguishable  objects  may  be  hoisted  on  hal- 
yards or  otherwise  brought  into  view,  properly  arranged,  to 
make  any  signal  of  this  order. 

Or  signals  may  be  made  by  two  men  standing  side  by 
side,  and  numbered  "one"  and  "two,"  who  take  each  the 
proper  position  on  hearing  the  letter-number  called :  No.  1 
assuming  the  signal  position  for  the  first  number-symbol; 
No.  2,  the  signal  position  for  the  second  number-symbol ; 
as  Plate  XV,  Figs.  4,  5,  6. 

The  System  of  Polybitts. 

The  oldest  system  of  signals  of  which  there  is  record,  was 
seemingly  an  alphabetic  code  of  this  order.  Described  in 
brief,  it  consisted  in  designating  the  twenty-four  characters 
of  the  Greek  alphabet  by  twenty-four  arrangements  of  two 
places  which  can  be  made  with  any  five  elements  or  signals. 
(See  table  of  references— Page  34;  Plate  XV,  Fig.  8.) 

This  plan  is  minutely  described  by  historians.     By  the 


MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS. 


L23 


form  of  Polybius,  the  letters  were  arranged  in  five  columns. 

Thus: 


1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

~ 

A  a 

Zt 

Ak 

Up 

<1>  uv 

<N 

Bb 

H? 

Ml 

Pq 

Xw 

03 

To 

e  1. 

N  m 

I  r 

•%  X 

Tf 

Ad 

n 

Eg     . 

Ts 

Qy 

lO 

Ee 

Kj 

Oo 

Tt 

z 

The  smaller  letters  are  to  show  the  English  alphabet  ar- 
ranged after  this  method. 

Now  to  indie-ate  in  the  first  column  the  first  letter,  or  the 
letter  "A,"  "first  first,"  "one  one,"  or  "  11,"  is  written. 

To  indicate  in  the  third  column  the  second  letter,  or  the 
letter  "M,"  "third  second,"  or  "three  two,"  "32,"  is 
written. 

To  indicate  in  the  third  column  the  third  letter,  or  "  X," 
"  third  third,"  or  "three  three,"  "33,"  is  written. 

To  signal  letters,  lights  were  shown  above  a  fence  or 
screen  on  the  right  or  left  of  a  known  central  position. 

Thus,  to  make  "A,"  or  "  11,"  one  light  was  shown  above 
the  screen  on  the  left,  and  one  above  the  screen  on  the  right 
of  the  fixed  position. 

To  signal  "M,"  or  "three  two"  "  32,"  three  lights  were 
shown  on  the  left  and  two  on  the  right  of  the  fixed  posi- 
tion. 


124  MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS. 

To  signal  "X,"  "three  three"  "33,"  three  lights  were 
shown  on  the  left  and  three  on  the  right ;  and  so  for  the 
signal-numbers  of  any  letters. 

The  following  description  is  extracted  from  Polybius, 
General  History,  Book  I.,  Chap.  X. : 

"  Take  the  alphabet  and  divide  it  into  five  parts,  with  five 
letters  in  each.  In  the  last  part,  indeed,  a  letter  will  be 
wanting,  but  this  is  of  no  importance.  Then  let  those  who 
are  to  give  and  to  receive  the  signals,  write  upon  five  tab- 
lets the  five  portions  of  the  letters  in  their  proper  order,  and 
concert  together  the  following  plan  :  That  he,  on  one  side, 
who  is  to  make  the  signal,  shall  first  raise  two  lighted 
torches,  and  hold  them  erect  till  they  are  answered  by 
torches  from  the  other  side.  This  only  serves  to  show  that 
they  are  on  both  sides  ready  and  prepared.  That  after- 
wards, he  again  who  gives  the  signal  shall  raise  first  some 
torches  upon  the  left  hand,  in  order  to  make  known  to  those 
upon  the  other  side  which  of  the  tablets  is  to  be  inspected, 
— if  the  first,  for  example,  a  single  torch  ;  if  the  second,  two; 
and  so  of  the  rest.  That  then  he  shall  raise  other  torches 
also  upon  the  right,  to  mark  in  the  same  manner  to  those 
who  receive  the  signal,  which  of  the  letters  upon  the  tablet 
is  to  be  observed  and  written.  When  they  have  thus  regu- 
lated their  plan  and  taken  their  respective  posts,  it  will  be 
necessary,  first,  to  have  a  dioptical  instrument  formed  with 
two  holes  or  tubes — one  for  discovering  the  right,  and  the 
other  the  left  hand  of  the  person  who  is  to  raise  the  torches 
on  the  opposite  side.  The  tablets  must  be  placed  erect  and 
in  their  proper  order  near  the  instrument ;  and  upon  the 
right  and  left  there  should  be  also  a  solid  fence  of  about  ten 
feet  in  length,  and  of  the  height  of  a  man,  that  the  torches, 
being  raised  along  the  top  of  those  ramparts,  may  give  a 
more  certain  light,  and  when  they  are  dropped  again,  that 
they  may  also  be  concealed  behind  them. 


MANUAL   OF  SIGNALS.  L2£ 


"When  all' tilings,  then,  are  thus  prepared,  if  it  be  in- 
tended, for  example,  to  convey  this  notice, '  that  some  <>f  the 
soldiers,  about  a  hundred  in  number,  have  gone  over,'  it 
will  be  necessary,  in  the  first  place,  to  choose  words  for  this 
purpose  which  contain  the  fewest  letters.  Thus,  if  it  is  said, 
'  Cretans,  a  hundred  have  deserted,'  the  same  thing  is  ex- 
pressed in  less  than  half  of  the  letters  which  compose  the 
former  sentence.  These  words,  then,  being  first  written 
down,  are  communicated  by  means  of  torches  in  the  follow- 
ing manner.  The  first  letter  is  K  (kappa),  whicb  stands  in 
the  second  division  of  the  alphabet  and  upon  the  second 
tablet.  The  person,  therefore,  who  makes  the  signal  first, 
holds  up  two  torches  upon  the  left,  to  signify  that  it  is  the 
second  tablet  which  is  to  be  inspected  ;  and  afterwards  five 
upon  the  right,  to  show  that  Kappa  is  the  letter  which  he 
who  receives  the  signal  must  observe  and  write — for  Kappa 
stands  fifth  in  the  second  division  of  the  letters.  Then 
again  he  holds  up  four  torches  upon  the  left,  because  P  (Ho) 
is  found  in  the  fourth  division ;  and  two  upon  the  right,  to 
denote  that  it  stands  the  second  in  that  division.  From 
hence  the  person  who  receives  the  signal  writes  Ro  upon 
his  tablets,  and  in  the  same  manner  the  rest  of  the  letters. 
By  this  method  an  account  of  every  thing  that  happens  may 
be  conveyed  with  the  most  pei'fect  accuracy." 

It  is  not  uncommon  to  find  this  tabular  arrangement  of 
the  alphabet  applied  to  codes  of  recent  origin.  The  form  is 
not  necessary  to  determine  the  signal-numbers  of  the  letters, 
when  it  is  borne  in  mind  that  the  code  is  only  an  alphabetic 
code  of  five  elements,  and  the  letters  are  indicated  by  the 
numeral  combinations  prescribed  by  the  usual  rules. 

The  same  results  are  then  attained,  one  light  being  shown 
to  signify  "  one,"  two  to  signify  "two,"  three  to  signify 
"three,"  four  to  make  "four,"  five  to  make  "five." 


12(3  MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS. 

Thus  to  make  "  11,"  or  "A,"  one  light  would  be  shown 
twice. 

To  make  "three  two"  "32,"  or  "  M,"  three  lights  would 
he  shown,  followed  by  two  lights. 

To  make  "  three  three"  "  33,"  or  "  X,"  three  lights  would 
be  shown,  and  then  three  lights.     So  for  the  alphabet. 

Or  if  all  the  lights  for  each  letter  were  to  he  shown  at 
oik'  time  and  together,  then  for  "  L,"  "two  three"  "23," 
two  lights  would  he  shown  for  "  two,"  and  three  near  them 
for  "  three."     (Plate  XV,  Fig.  7.)      No  apparatus  is  needed. 

For  "  X,"  "  33,"  three  lights  would  be  shown— with  three 
more  near  them. 

The  lights  for  the  first  numeral  of  the  combination  show- 
ing on  the  left  of  the  sending  signalist,  those  for  the  second 
numeral  of  the  combination  on  his  right. 

Or  signals  of  this  kind  may  be  made  by  positions,  motions, 
dashes,  sounds,  as  has  been  already  described. 

The  study  of  the  signals  of  this  table  is  interesting.  It 
will  be  referred  to  hereafter. 


FIELD  SIGNALS  BY  SIX  ELEMENTS. 

Signals  of  six  elements  are  interesting,  from  the  fact  that 
this  is  the  least  number  of  elements,  the  combinations  of 
which  permit  each  letter  of  the  alphabet  and  the  numeral 
digits  to  be  designated  each  by  signals  of  two  places.  Each 
letter  and  number  is  signified  thus  by  each  pair  of  signals, 
and  it  can  be  judged  when  each  signal  is  complete  and 
perfect. 

An  alphabet  of  six  elements  might  be  as  follows: 


MANUAL  OF   SIGNALS.  1^7 

ALPHABET  OF  SIX  ELEMENTS. 

(an  arrangement  or  six  symbols.) 


A- 

-11 

F— 12 

K— 13 

P— 14 

U— 15 

B- 

-21 

G— 22 

L— 23 

Q— 24 

V— 25 

C- 

-31 

11— 32 

M— 33 

R— 34 

W— 35 

D- 

-41 

1—42 

N— 43 

S— 44 

X— 45 

E- 

-51 

J— 52 

O— 58 

T— 54 

Y— 55 

Numerals. 

1- 

-20 

4—50 

7—62 

2- 

-30 

5—00 

S— 63 

0- 

3- 

-40 

0— 01 

9—64 

Z— 16 


0—65 


Code -Signals 

♦ 
The  code  signals  below  given  are  made  with  a  disk,  held 

in  the  hand,  and  used  with  the  same  positions  and  motions 

as  those  heretofore  described  for  the  same  signals  under  the 

General  Service  Code. 

3 — End  of  a  word. 

33 — End  of  a  sentence. 

333 — End  of  a  message. 

22.22.22.3 — Signal  of  assent:  "I  understand,"  or  "Mes- 
sage is  received  and  understood,"  or  "  I  see  your  signals," 
or  affirmative  generally. 

22.22.22.333 — Cease  signalling. 

121.121.121— Repeat. 

212121— Error. 

211.211.211— Move  a  little  to  the  right, 

221.221.221— Move  a  little  to  the  left. 

Disk  waved  successively  from  side  to  side  until  attention 
is  attracted — "Attention,  look  for  signals  from  this  point." 


128  MANUAL  OF   SIGNALS. 

Instructions  fob  Using  the  Code. 

The  letters  are  symbolized  and  are  to  be  read  as  has  been 
described  for  other  signals. 

Each  pair  of  signals  indicates  a  completed  letter  or 
numeral. 

The  Roman  characters  may  be  used  for  numerals,  instead 
of  the  combinations  for  numerals  here  given. 

The  working-signals  "error,"  "affirmative,"  "repeat," 
etc.,  are  made  with  the  same  motions  as  for  the  General 
Service  Code ;  combinations  of  three  places  may  be  devised 
for  these  arbitrary  signals. 

The  General  rules  for  Sending,  Receiving,  Ordering,  and 
Recording  are  applied  to  this  code. 

Day  Signals  by  Positions  and  Motions. 

The  signalman*  standing  equipped,  holds  in  his  hand  a 
signal  disk  or  other  visible  object. 

There  are  one  position  and  six  motions.  (Plate  XVI, 
Fig.  1.) 

The  fiest  position  or  "  ready,"  the  signalman,  standing 
equipped  and  directly  facing  the  point  of  communication, 
holds  in  his  hand  a  signal  disk  at  the  height  of  and  flat  upon 
the  breast. 

The  signalman  so  equipped  and  placed— 

To  make  the  fiest  motion,  "one"  "1,"  the  right  hand 
and  disk  are  extended  slowly  obliquely  upward  at  arm's 
length  above  the  head  and  on  the  right  side,  and  then  re- 
turned to  the  first  position. 

To  make  the  second  motion,  "  two"  "  2,"  the  right  hand 
and  disk  are  extended  slowly  horizontally  outward  at-arm's 
length,  and  at  the  height  of  the  shoulder,  and  then  returned 
to  the  first  position. 


IM.ATK    XVI. 


i 


D.iv.V  Night  Signal 


Lantern  or  Disc         Positions  L2.3.4.5.6 

Is- Position  ^Motions 
12.3.1.5  <i. 

Fig.  4. 


Muskel   Positions. 


- 


4' 


Fig.7 


Night  Signals/Torch  St 

Stationary  light . 

I 


F       V3 


Ei 

Fig.  8. 
D 


I  6 


H 


Fig.9. 


G        i 


Sight  Signals .Flashes  1  .71.") 


MANUAL  OF   SIGNALS.  129 

To  make  the  third  motion",  "three"  "3,"  the  right  hand 

and  disk  are  extended  slowly  obliquely  downward  at  arm's 
length  and  on  the  righl  side,  and  then  returned  to  the  first 
position. 

To  make  the  fourth  motion,  "four"  "4,"  the  left  hand 
and  disk  are  extended  slowly  obliquely  upward  above  the 
head  at  arm's  length  and  on  the  left  side,  and  then  re- 
turned to  the  first  position. 

To  make  the  fifth  motion,  "  rive"  "  5,"  the  left  hand  and 
disk  are  extended  slowly  horizontally  outward   at  arm's 
length  at  the  height  of  the  shoulder  and  on  the  left  side,  and 
,  then  returned  to  the  first  position. 

To  make  the  sixth  motion,  "  six"  "  6,"  the  left  hand  and 
disk  are  extended  slowly  obliquely  downward  at  arm's 
length  and  on  the  left  side,  and  then  returned  to  the  first 
position. 

Pause  or  space  signal,  "  seven"  "  7,"  a  wave  of  the  right 
hand  and  disk  around  the  head. 

Thus,  to  signal  "M,"  "three  three"  or  "33,"  the  right 
hand  is  extended  obliquely  downward  at  arm's  length  on 
the  right  side,  and  then  brought  back  to  the  first  position ; 
and  at  once  again  extended  in  the  same  manner  and  again 
returned  to  the  same  position; — that  is,  there  are  made  two 
third  motions. 

To  signal  "  T,"  "  five  four"  or  "  54,"  the  left  hand  and  disk 
aic  extended  slowly  horizontally  at  arm's  length  on  the  left 
side,  and  then  brought  back  to  the  first  position  ;  when  the 
same  arm  and  disk  are,  without  pause,  extended  obliquely 
upward  at  arm's  length  on  the  left  side,  and  again  brought 
back  to  the  first  position; — that  is,  there  is  made  one  fifth 
motion,  followed  by  one  fourth  motion,  "54. 


>5 


130  MANUAL  .  OF   SIGNALS. 

To  signal  "  K,"  "  13"  or  "one  three,"  the  right  hand  and 
disk  are  extended  obliquely  upward  on  the  right  side  at 
arm's  length,  and  then  returned  to  the  first  position  ;  when, 
without  pause,  the  same  arm  and  disk  are  extended  obliquely 
downward  at  arm's  length  on  the  same  side,  and  again  re- 
turned to  the  first  position.  Thus  is  made  one  first  motion, 
followed  by  one  third  motion,  "  13." 

To  signal  "  W,"  "  25"  or  "  two  five,"  the  right  hand  and 
disk  are  extended  horizontally  at  the  height  of  the  shoulder 
at  arm's  length  and  on  the  right  side,  and  then  brought 
back  to  the  first  position  ;  when,  without  pause,  the  left  hand 
and  disk  are  extended  horizontally  at  arm's  length  at  the 
height  of  the  shoulder  and  on  the  left  side,  and  then  brought 
back  to  the  first  position :  a  second  motion,  followed  by  a 
fifth  motion. 

To  make  "  pause-signal,"  the  right  hand  and  disk  may  be 
waved  twice  around  the  head. 

To  signal  "  156,"  there  is  made  one  first  motion,  followed 
by  one  fifth  motion,  followed  by  one  sixth  motion. 

To  signal  "  1346,"  there  is  made  one  first  motion,  fol- 
lowed by  one  third  motion,  followed  by  one  fourth  motion, 
followed  by  one  sixth  motion. 

And  thus  for  any  of  the  combinations  or  arrangements  of 
six  numerals. 


Or  field  signals  of  six  elements  may  be  made  with  any  six 
positions  of  any  visible  object,  as  with  the  arm  of  a  sema- 
phore, as  in  Plate  XVI,  Fig.  2,- — the  arm  starting  from  a 
position  of  rest  and  moved  into  any  position  there  given, 
being  the  signal  for  the  number  of  that  position.  Thus,  to 
make  "  14,"  "one  four,"  the  arm  is  moved  first  into  position 
"one,"  and  then  into  position  "four;"  at  the  end  of  the  sig- 
nal it  returns  to  the  position  "rest." 

To  mark  "  1 1,"  the  arm  is  moved  from  the  position  "  rest" 


MANUAL  OF   SIGNALS.  131 

to  the  position  "one,"  returned  to  the  position  '•rest,"  and 
again  moved  to  the  position  "one." 

The  position  "rest"  is  here  the  first  position,  and  the 
movement  of  the  arm  to  any  numbered  position  is  the  mo- 
tion known  by  the  number  of  that  position. 

In  this  semaphore  there  are  one  position  and  six  motions. 
The  body  and  arm  of  a  man  maybe  used  as  a  semaphore, 
and  is  one  virtually  for  disk  signals. 

So  signals  of  six  elements  may  be  made  with  any  flag,  or 
gun,  or  rod,  or  other  object  held  in  the  six  different  posi- 
tions— the  positions  being  made  one  after  the  other  in  the 
proper  order,  to  indicate  the  numeral  elements. 


Plate  XYI,  Fig.  3,  represents  a  musket  held  in  the  hands ; 
or  some  visible  objeet,  as  a  kerchief,  to  render  it  more  dis- 
tinctly visible,  may  be  attached. 

There  are,  for  signals,  the  position  "  ready,"  and  six  sig- 
nal positions. 

The  position  "ready"  is  with  the  musket  held  vertically, 
directly  above  the  head.. 

The  signal  positions  are — 

First  position,  "  1,"  musket  inclined  upward  and  to  the 
right. 

Second  position,  "  2,"  musket  held  horizontally  and  on 
the  right  side. 

Third  position,  "  :3,"  musket  inclined  oblicpiely  downward 
and  to  the  right. 

Fourth  position,  "4,"  musket  inclined  obliquely  upward 
and  to  the  left. 

Fifth  position,  "  5,"  musket  held  horizontally  and  on  the 
left  side. 

Sixth  position,  "6,"  musket  inclined  oblicpiely  downward 
and  to  the  left. 

"  Panse,"  "  error,"  etc.,  as  for  flag  signals ;  musket  re- 


lo2  MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS. 

turns  to  first  position  after  each  completed  signal  number, 
or  where  the  same  numeral  is  repeated  in  any  signal  num- 
ber, but  not  necessarily  after  each  numeral  of  the  signal 
number. 

To  signal  "  34,"  take  the  first  signal  position  and  then  the 
fourth,  then  return  to  the  position  "  ready." 

To  signal  "  45,"  take  the  fourth  signal  position  and  then 
the  fifth  signal  position  ;  return  to  position  "  ready." 

To  signal  "  1325,"  make  the  first  signal  position,  then  the 
third  signal  position,  then  the  second  signal  position,  then 
the  fifth  signal  position ;  return  to  position  "  ready." 

Where  the  positions  of  any  signal  to  be  made  are  some  of 
them  on  the  right  and  some  on  the  left  of  the  signalist,  the 
musket  is  moved  in  the  change  from  side  to  side  over  the 
head  of  the  signalist.  The  signal  arm  or  musket  is  allowed 
to  remain  in  each  signal  position  such  time  as  the  signalist 
deems  necessary,  that  it  may  be  fully  recognized  in  that  po- 
sition.    Its  stops  in  each  position  must  be  marked. 

Night  Signals. 

The  signalman,  equipped,  has  fixed  at  the  waist  a  Refer- 
ence Light,  and  holds  a  Lantern  in  his  right  hand. 

The  Position  "  ready,"  is  with  both  lanterns  close  together 
at  the  height  of  the  waist. 

There  are  one  Position  and  six  Motions. 

The  Positions,  Motions,  and  General  Instructions  for  night 
signals  are  similar  to  those  for  making  signals  by  day. 

The  reference  lio-ht  must  be  distinguished  from  the  mov- 
ing  light  by  its  brilliancy  or  color. 

The  mode  of  signalling  has  been  already  sufficiently  de- 
scribed. 


Or  night  signals  of  six  elements  may  be  made  with  torches, 
as  of  the  signal  equipment.     (Plate  XVI,  Fig.  5.) 


MANUAL  OF  SIGNALS.  L33 

One  torch  is  fixed  stationary  at  a  height  of  aboitl  lour  feet 
from  the  ground,  ami  so  prepared  as  to  be  distinguishable 
from  the  moving  torch.     The  other  can  be  moved  from  it  in 
the  six  directions ;  returning  to  the   stationary  torch   afteif 
each  motion,  as  to  a  point  of  reference. 

Thus  there  are  one  position  and  six  motions.  The  posi- 
tion "ready,"  both  torches  close  together,  or  one  directly 
above  the  other.  The  motion  "one"  "  1,"  obliquely  up- 
ward, and.  to  the  right.  The  motion  "two"  "2,"  horizon- 
tally, and  to  the  right.  The  motion  "  three"  "  3,"  obliquely 
downward,  and  to  the  right.  The  motion  "four"  "4,"  up- 
ward, and  to  the  left.  The  motion  "five"  "5,"  horizontally, 
and  to  the  left.  The  motion  "  six"  "  G,"  obliquely  down- 
ward, and  to  the  left. 

Pause-signals,  "attention,"  "repeat,"  etc.,  are  made  by 
different  numbers  of  vertical  motions. 

"  Attention," — Torch  moved  vertically  continually.  "As- 
sent,— Torch  moved  vertically  twice.  "Repeat," — Torch 
moved  vertically  three  times. 

Signals  by  Flashes  and  Occultations. 

Or  signals  of  six  elements  can  be  made  by  six  stationary 
white  lights,  arranged  about  a  central  light.  (Plate  XVI, 
Fig.  6.)' 

The  central  light  burns  steadily.  The  other  lights  are 
screened  dark,  and  each  is  shown  only  when  its  number  is 
to  be  made.  The  central  light  is  flashed  to  make  pause- 
signals.  The  central  light  must  be  distinguished  from  posi- 
tion lights,  by  its  brilliancy  or  its  color. 

Thus,  to  make  "one  five"  "  15,"  there  are  flashed,  first 
the  position  light  "  one,"  and  then  the  position  light  "  five." 
To  make  "  three  five"  "35,"  there  are  flashed,  first  the  po- 
sition light  "  three,"  and  then  the  position  light  "  five."  To 
make  "24,"  flash  light  "two,"  then  light  •'four.''  A  pause 
of  time  is  allowed  after  each  completed  signal. 


134  MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS. 

The  central  light  is  flashed  for  any  conventional  signals. 

This  apparatus  affords  a  good  illustration  of  the  numer- 
ous signals  to  be  had  from  a  few  simple  signals.  With  these 
six  position  lights  and  one  central  light,  there  can  be  made, 
using  no  light  twice  in  any  signal,  one  thousand  nine  hun- 
dred and  fifty-six  separate  signals;  or  using  repetition  sig- 
nals— that  is,  using  the  same  lights  twice  or  more  times  as 
may  be  required  in  the  signals,  but  showing  not  more  than 
six  lights  for  any  signal— there  can  be  made  fifty-five  thou- 
sand nine  hundred  and  eio-htv-six  signals. 

Cn<\v  signals  of  six  elements  can  be  made  with  six  flags: 
three  small,  a  red,  a  white,  and  a  blue;  and  three  larger, 
a  red,  a  Avhite,  a  blue.  Then  the  signal  numerals,  "  one," 
"two,"  "three,"  are  represented  by  the  small  flags;  the 
signal  numerals,  "  four,"  "  five,"  and  "  six,"  by  the  larger 
flags. 

The  flags  may  be  kept  out  of  view  (obscured),  and  each 
waved  into  sight  as  often  as  its  number  is  called. 

So  signals  may  be  made  at  night  by  any  single  light 
flashed  "  once"  for  "  1,"  "  twice"  for  "  2,"  and  so  on.  And 
by  day,  by  any  object  obscured  and  flashed  suddenly  into 
view,  an  interval  of  time  separating  the  signals  of  each 
letter-signal :  a  longer  interval  separating  words. 

Signals  by  Sounds. 

So,  too,  signals  may  be  made  by  sounds  ;  by  any  different 
sounds,  or  by  one  sound  repeated,  as  has  been  illustrated 
for  other  codes. 

Field  signals  of  six  elements  may  be  made  with  any  six 
flags,  or  any  six  objects  whatever,  to  designate  the  six  sym- 
bols, and  hoisted  by  pairs  upon  a  halyard  for  any  complete 
signal. 

Or,  in  fine,  signals  of  this  order  may  be  made  by  exhibit- 


MANUAL    OF    SIGNALS.  135 

ing  any  six  different  motions,  or  positions,  or  sounds,  or 
colors,  or  indications. 

Or  by  exhibiting  any  one  of  these  the  proper  number  of 
times  with  propes  intervals. 

Enough  examples  are  given  for  experiment. 

Signals  of  six  elements  may  be  signified  in  such  manner 
that  any  of  the  six  symbols  may  be  indicated  at  different 
times  by  different  signals.  For  this  purpose  each  symbol 
is  signified  by  two  or  three  different  motions,  positions,  or 

other  indications. 

Thus,  the  signal  positions  "one,"  "two,"  "three,"  four," 
"five,"  "six,"  may  l>c  represented  with  one  arm,  as  already 
described;  while  it  is  understood  that  the  signals  "four," 
'•five,"  "six,"  may  be  also  in  the  same  code  represented — 
"four"  by  both  arms  directly  upward;  "five"  by  both 
arms  horizontally  ontward  at  the  height  of  the  shoulder; 
"six"  by  both  arms  obliquely  downward. 

The  letter-signals  will  so  appear  in  many  different  guises. 

A  gentleman  of  Philadelphia,  Mr.  James  Swain,  has 
elaborated  codes  of  six  elements  with  many  beautiful  and 
n>eful  devices. 

By  his  plans,  any  three  positions,  sounds,  or  motions,  or 
indications,  designated  the  symbols  "one,"  "two,"  "three;" 
and  for  the  symbols  "four,"  "five,"  "six,"  these  signals 
were  duplicated. 

Thus,  Plate  XVI,  Fig.  4,  the  signal  positions  "one"  "  1," 
"two"  "2,"  "three"  "3,"  may  be  as  given  by  the  three 
positions  of  the  arm  at  "one,"  "two,"  and  "three;"  while 
the  fourth  position,  "4,"  is  both  arms  held  obliquely  upward 
on  both  sides.  The  fifth  position,  "5,"  is  both  arms  ex- 
tended horizontally  on  both  sides.  The  sixth  position,  "6," 
is  both  arms  extended  obliquely  downward  on  both  sides. 

It  may  be  understood  that  a  single  arm   shown  on  either 


136  MANUAL    OF    SIGNALS. 

side  shall,  if  inclined  upward,  signal  "  one"  "  1 ;"  if  held 
horizontally,  signal  "two"  "2;"  if  inclined  downward,  sig- 
nal "  three"  "  3." 

So  if  "red,"  "white,"  and  "green"  are  "one,"  "two," 
and  "three,"  then  "two  reds,"  "two  whites,"  and  "two 
greens"  may  be  "four,"  "five,"  and  "six."  And  thus  for 
other  symbols. 

To  Mr.  Swain  belongs  the  credit  of  having  first,  in  this 
country,  directed  attention  to  the  practical  uses  of  signal 
disks  for  the  telegraphing  of  messages  of  any  description ; 
the  enumeration  of  the  letters  of  the  alphabet  after  the 
Polybian  method  ;  and  the  advantages  which  are  had  by 
providing  that  each  letter  of  the  alphabet  be  indicated  by 
the  same  and  a  certain  number  of  figures.  Practical  plans 
for  alphabetic  homographic  signals  appear  to  have  been 
devised  by  him  at  an  early  day. 

The  vocabularies  and  plans  treated  of  by  Mr.  Swain  evi- 
dence the  study  of  years,  and  have  received  high  commen- 
dation and  the  favorable  reports  of  Military  Boards  in  this 
country  and  in  Europe.  The  devices  perfected  by  this 
gentleman  are  worthy  the  careful  study  of  every  soldier. 
There  will  be,  in  active  service,  frequent  occasions  on  which 
they  may  be  used  with  advantage.  The  writer  acknowl- 
edges his  own  indebtedness  for  many  of  the  ideas  elaborated 
in  this  volume  to  the  suggestions  of  this  skilful  signalist. 

Among  Mr.  Swain's  plans  is  one  of  much  convenience  for 
using  a  single  lantern,  by  which,  by  changes  of  color,  any 
message  is  telegraphed.  And  one  for  a  semaphore  to  be 
attached  to  a  ship's  mast  and  worked  by  balls,  as  illustrated 
at  Plate  XVI,  Figs.  7,  8,  9,  promises  much  utility. 

To  form  an  accurate  idea  of  the  study  and  labor  bestowed 
on  the  subject  of  signalling  by  this  gentleman,  and  the 
numerous  successes  which  his  ingenuity  has  achieved,  a 
perusal  of  his  elaborate  papers  is  necessary.  During  the 
recent  war  of  the  rebellion,  Mr.  Swain's  plans  were  tendered 


MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS.  I  o7 

by  him  for  the  free  use  of  the  Government,  and  some  les- 
sons in  their  use  were  given  to  classes  of  the  Signal  Corps. 
The  difficulties  which  beset  the  classes  at  their  organization 
prevented  a  thorough  instruction. 


Plate  XVI,  Figs.  7,  8,  9.— Let  A  B  be  an  upright  staff 
fitted  to  be  attached  to  any  mast  or  upright.  Let  C  be  a 
canvas  tube  or  screen,  in  which  are  concealed  two  balls,  so 
arranged  as  to  slide  freely  upon  the  staff  A  B,  for  its  length 
— these  balls  to  be  so  fitted  with  halyards  that  one  of  them 
may  be  moved  singly  to  any  position  upon  the  signal  staff, 
or  both  of  them  to  be  moved  together  to  any  position  upon 
the  staff.  The  apparatus,  as  at  Fig.  7,  Plate  XVI,  is  ready 
for  use. 

There  are  one  position  '■  ready,"  and  six  signal  positions. 

The  position  "  ready"  is  both  balls  concealed  in  the  can- 
vas tube,  C. 

Signal  position  "  one"  "  1,"  one  ball  at  lower  end  of  signal 
staff,  as  at  D;  signal  position  "two"  "2,"  one  ball  at  centre 
of  signal  staff,  as  at  E  ;  signal  position  "  three"  "  3,"  ball  at 
top  of  signal  staff,  as  at  F  ;  signal  position  "  four"  "  4,"  both 
balls  at  bottom  of  signal  staff,  as  at  G  ;  signal  position  "  five" 
"  5,"  both  balls  at  centre  of  signal  staff,  as  at  H  ;  signal  posi- 
tion "  six"  "  6,"  both  balls  at  top  of  signal  staff,  as  at  I. 

Signal  of  "attention,"  one  ball  slid  continually  up  and 
down  upon  the  staff;  signal  of  "  assent,"  ball  moved  twice 
from  bottom  to  top  of  staff,  and  repeat;  signal  to  "repeat,' 
ball  moved  three  times  from  bottom  to  top  of  staff. 

This  semaphore  has  the  advantage  that  the  signals  are 
visible  from  any  direction. 


138  MANUAL  OF  SIGNALS. 

FIELD  SIGNALS  BY  SEVEN  ELEMENTS. 

An  alphabet  of  seven  elements  would  be  as  follows : 
ALPHABET  OF  SEVEN  ELEMENTS. 

(an  arrangement  of  seven  symbols.) 

A— 21  F— 32  K— 43  P— 54  U— 71 

•B— 23  G— 34  L— 45  Q— 61  Y— 72 

C— 24  H— 35  M— 51  R— 62  W—  73 

D— 25        1—41  N— 52  S— 63  X— 74 

E— 31  J— 42  0—53  T— 64  Y— 75      Z— 76 

Numerals. 

1—17  4—47  7—56 

2—27  5—57  8—66     0—11 

3—37  6—67  9—77 

The  Roman  characters  for  notation  may  be  used  instead 
of  the  combinations  of  numerals. 

Each  letter  signal  must  be  indicated  by  two  numerals. 

The  conventional  signals  for  "end  of  word,"  "error," 
etc.,  may  be  motions,  as  for  the  General  Service  Code,  or 
they  may  be  designated  by  especial  combinations.  These 
need  be  of  two  places  only. 

Messages  are  transmitted  under  the  General  Rules  for 
Sending,  Receiving,  etc. 

Day   and  Night  Signals. 

The  seven  elements  may  be  signified  for  day  or  night 
signals. 

The  signalman  standing  and  equipped  as  described  for 
other  signals  by 

One  position  and  seven  motions. 


MANUAL   OF    SIGNALS.  L39 

As  iirst  position,  disk  at  the  height  of  the  In-cast. 

Motions — hand  and  disk  returning  to  firsl  position  after 
each  motion.  First  :  hand  and  disk  directly  above  the  In 'ad. 
Second:  hand  and  disk  obliquely  upward  and  to  the  right. 
Third  :  hand  and  disk  horizontally  oul  ward  and  to  the  light. 
Fourth:  hand  and  disk  obliquely  downward  and  to  the 
right.  Fifth  :  hand  and  disk  obliquely  upward  and  to  the  left. 
Sixth:  hand  and  disk  horizontally  outward  and  to  the  left. 
Seventh:  hand  and  disk  obliquely  downward  and  to  the  left. 

Code  signals:  by  waves  of  the  disk. 

Or  by  any  seven  different  positions  relative  to  a  fixed  po- 
sition, as  of  a  semaphore  or  homograph. 

Or  by  any  seven  different  flags,  to  be  in  view  on  hal- 
yards or  masts. 

Or  by  any  seven  different  lights,  colors,  sounds,  or  visible 
things  or  indications. 

Or  by  any  seven  different  combinations  of  any  indications 
which  can  be  used  as  signals. 

Field  signals  by  seven  elements  are  rarely  used.  The  ex- 
ample is  here  given  for  the  purpose  of  such  practice  as  may 
enable  the  student  to  acquaint  himself  practically  with  sig- 
nals formed  upon  this  plan,  as  with  others  given. 

The  general  plans  for  the  use,  should  it  become  at  any 
time  desirable,  will  be  sufficiently  understood  from  preced- 
ing instructions. 


140  MANUAL  OF  SIGNALS. 

FIELD  SIGNALS  BY  EIGHT  ELEMENTS. 

An  alphabet  of  eight  elements  might  be  as  follows : 
ALPHABET  OF  EIGHT  ELEMENTS. 

(an  arrangement  of  eight  symbols.) 


A- 

-12 

F— 24 

K— 43 

P— 62 

IT— 74 

B- 

-13 

G— 32 

L— 44 

Q— 63 

V— 82 

C- 

-14 

H— 33 

M— 52 

R— 64 

W— 83 

D- 

-22 

1—34 

N— 53 

S— 72 

X— 84 

E- 

-23 

J— 42 

0—54 

T— 73 

Y— 85  Z- 

-86 

Numerals. 

1—18 

4—48 

7—78 

2—28 

5—58 

8—87 

0—11 

3—38  ■ 

G— 68 

9—88 

The  Roman  characters  may  be  used  instead  of  the  combi- 
nations for  the  numeral  digits. 

Each  letter-number  consists  of  two  numeral  symbols. 

The  conventional  signals  for  "  end  of  word,"  "  error,"  etc., 
may  be  motions,  as  for  the  General  Service  Code,  or  especial 
combinations.     These  need  be  of  two  places  only. 

Messages  are  transmitted  under  the  General  Rules. 

Day  and  Night  Signals. 

The  eight  elements  may  be  signified  for  day  or  night 
signals. 

The  signalman  standing  and  equipped  as  before  de- 
scribed, by 

One  position  and  eight  motions. 

First  position — disks  at  the  height  of  the  breast. 


MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS.  1-11 

Motions — hands  and  disks  returning  to  first  position  after 
each  motion.  First:  hand  and  disk  directly  above  the 
head.  Second:  hand  and  disk  obliquely  upward  and  to 
the  right.  Third:  hand  and  disk  horizontally  outward  and 
to  the  right.  Fourth:  hand  and  disk  obliquely  downward 
and  to  the  right.  Fifth:  hand  and  disk  directly  downward 
in  front.  Sixth:  hand  and  disk  obliquely  upward  and  to 
the  left.  Seventh:  hand  and  disk  horizontally  outward 
and  to  the  left.  Eighth:  hand  and  disk  obliquely  down- 
ward and  to  the  left. 

Code  signals  by  waves  of  the  disk. 

Or  the  eight  elements  may  be  signified  by  any  eight  dif- 
ferent positions  relative  to  a  fixed  position. 

Or  by  any  eight  different  flags. 

Or  by  any  eight  different  lights,  colors,  sounds,  things, 
or  indications. 

Or  by  any  eight  different  combinations  of  indications 
winch  can  be  used  as  signals. 

If  we  have  any  four  things  or  indications  which  can  be 
increased  or  duplicated — then  one,  two,  three,  and  four  may 
be  indicated,  each  by  one  of  those  things — and  five,  six, 
seven,  and  eight  by  the  increased  development  of  the  same 
things.  Thus,  if  there  are  four  different  short  notes,  these 
may  be  one,  two,  three,  and  four ;  the  same  different  notes, 
long,  may  be  five,  six,  seven,  eight. 

Or  there  may  be  four  single  notes  for  the  first  four  sym- 
bols, and  the  same  four  notes  doubled  for  the  second  four 
symbols. 

Or  four  different  small  flags  for  one,  two,  three,  four; 
four  similar  large  flags  for  five,  six,  seven,  eight.  Thus  for 
whatever  indications. 

Field  signals  of  eight  elements  are  rarely  used,  and,  as 
in  the  preceding  case,  the  example  is  here  given  for  prac- 
tice only. 


142  MANUAL  OF  SIGNALS. 

FIELD  SIGNALS  BY  NINE  ELEMENTS. 

An  alphabet  of  nine  elements  would  be  as  follows : 
ALPHABET  OF  NINE  ELEMENTS. 

(an  arrangement  of  nine  symbols.) 

A— 22  F— 34  K— 53  P— 72  U— 84 

B— 23  G— 42  L— 54  Q— 73  V— 92 

C— 24  H— 43  M— 62  R— 74  W— 93 

D—32  1—44  N— 63  S— 82  X— 94 

E— 33  J— 52  0—64  T— 83  Y— 95       Z— 96. 

Numerals. 

1—1  4—4  7—7 

2—2  5—5  8—8  0—11 

3—3  6—6  9—9 

The  Roman  characters  may  be  used  for  the  numerals. 

Each  letter-number  consists  of  two  numeral  symbols.  The 
conventional  signals,  "end  of  word,"  etc.,  may  be  motions 
as  for  General  Service  Code,  or  especial  combinations. 
These  may  be  of  two  places. 

Messages  are  transmitted  under  the  General  Rules. 

Day  and  Night  Signals. 

The  nine  elements  may  be  signified  for  day  or  night 
signals. 

The  signalman  standing  and  equipped  as  before  de- 
scribed, by 

One  position  and  nine  motions. 

First  position — hand  and  disk  at  height  of  the  breast. 


MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS.  143 

Motions — liantls  and  disks  returning  to  firsl  position  after 
each  motion : 

First:  hand  and  disk  obliquely  upward  to  the  right. 
Second:  hand  and  disk  horizontally  outward  and  to  the 
right.  Third:  hand  and  disk  obliquely  downward  and  to 
the  right.  Fourth  :  hand  and  disk  obliquely  upward  and 
to  the  left.  Fifth:  hand  and  disk  horizontally  outward 
and  to  the  left.  Sixth  :  hand  and  disk  obliquely  downward 
and  to  the  left.  Seventh:  both  hands  and  disks  obliquely 
upward  on  both  sides.  Eighth  :  both  hands  and  disks 
horizontally  outward  on  both  sides.  Ninth :  both  hands 
and  disks  obliquely  downward  on  both  sides. 

Code  signals  as  before  driven. 

Or  the  nine  elements  may  be  signified  by  any  nine  differ- 
ent positions. 

Or  by  any  nine  different  flags. 

Or  by  auy  nine  lights,  colors,  sounds,  things,  or  indi- 
cations. 

If  there  are  three  signals  which  can  be  duplicated  ami 
triplicated,  or  otherwise  thrice  increased,  then  these  may 
signify  each  one,  two,  three;  and  when  duplicated,  four, 
five,  and  six;  and  when  triplicated,  seven,  eight,  and  nine. 

Thus  if  there  are  three  notes,  these  singly  may  be  one,  or 
two,  or  three  ;  doubled,  they  are  four,  or  five,  or  six;  tripled, 
they  are  seven,  or  eight,  or  nine.  x 

So  with  three  sets  of  three  each  of  signal  flaars  of  the 
same  color,  but  of  three  different  sizes  or  shapes. 

One  set  of  such  flags  may  be  one,  two,  three ;  a  second 
set  may  be  four,  five,  six.  A  third  set  may  be  seven,  eight, 
and  nine. 

The  same  modes  may  be  extended  to  any  signs,  motions, 
or  positions. 

Signals  of  nine  elements  are  not  of  general  use,  and,  as  in 
the  preceding  instances,  the  example  is  given  for  practical 
illust  ration  only. 


144  MANUAL  OF  SIGNALS. 


FIELD  SIGNALS  BY  TEN  ELEMENTS. 

Signals  of  this  order  admit  the  use  of  all  the  numerals  to 
represent  either  the  letters  of  the  alphabet,  or  to  be  arranged 
for  codes  of  messages. 

An  alphabetic  code  of  ten  elements  might  be  as  follows : 

ALPHABET  OF  TEN  ELEMENTS. 

(an  arrangement  op  ten  symbols.) 

A— 82  F— 44  K— 63  P— 82  U— 94 

B— 33  G— 52  L— 64  Q— 83  V— 10 

C— 34  II— 53  M— 72  R— 84  W— 20 

D— 42  1—54  N— 73  S— 92  X— 30 

E— 43  J— 62  0—74  T— 93  Y— 40         Z— 50 

Numerals. 

1—1  4—4  7—7 

2—2  5—5  8—8  0—0 

3—3  6—6  9—9 

The  rules,  instructions,  and  illustrations  given  for  other 
codes  sufficiently  describe  the  plans  for  practice  with  this. 


THE  GENERAL  SERVICE  TOMOGRAPHIC  CODE. 

The  General  Service  Homographic  Code  is  one  of  ten  ele- 
ments. A  code  with  this  number  of  elements  is  furnished, 
for  the  reason  that  it  will  readily  permit  the  application  of 
the  signals  to  the  signal-books  already  compiled  for  the  use 
of  the  naval  forces ;  as,  for  instance,  the  Naval  Signal  Code, 
and  the  Code  of  Boat  Signals. 


PLATE    XVII  . 


Ready' 


^HJ  ises 


H  VXUAL   OF   SIGNALS.  1-45 

There  are,  for  Signals,  one  position  and  ten  motions. 
(Plate  XVII.) 

The  signalman  is  equipped  as  follows:  He  holds  in  each 
hand  a  disk  of  canvas,  one  fool  or  eighteen  inches  in  diame- 
ter, stretched  upon  a  circle  of  strong  wire,  and  having  at- 
tached a  handle  for  convenience  of  management.  This 
handle  may  be  of  size  only  sufficient  to  be  grasped  by  the 
hand  ;  or  it  may  be,  to  give  greater  distinctness  to  the  sig- 
nals, say  two  feet  in  length.  The  signalman  being  thus 
equipped,  to  take  the  first  position,  or  "  ready,"  stands  hold- 
ing a  disk  in  each  hand,  with  the  disks  held  together  and  at 
the  height  of  the  breast. 


o 


To  make  the  first  motion,  or  "  one"  "  1,"  the  right  hand 
and  disk  are  extended  obliquely  upward  above  the  head,  at 
arm's  length,  and  on  the  right  side,  then  returned  to  the 
first  position. 

To  make  the  second  motion,  or  "  two"  "  2,"  the  right  hand 
and  disk  are  extended  horizontally,  and  at  arm's  length,  on 
the  right  side,  then  returned  to  the  first  position. 

To  make  the  third  motion,  or  "  three"  "  3,"  the  right 
hand  and  disk  are  extended  obliquely  downward,  at  arm's 
length,  and  on  the  right  side,  then  returned  to  the  first 
position. 

To  make  the  fourth  motion,  or  "four"  "4,"  the  left 
hand  and  disk  are  extended  obliquely  upward,  at  arm's 
lengthy  and  on  the  left  side,  then  returned  to  the  first  po- 
sition. 

To  make  the  fifth  motion,  or  "five"  "5,"  the  lefl  hand 
and  disk  are  extended  horizontally,  at  arm's  length,  and  on 
the  left  fide,  then  returned  to  the  firsl  position. 

7 


146  MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS. 

To  make  the  sixth  motion,  or  "six"  "  G,"  the  left  hand 
and  disk  are  extended  obliquely  downward,  at  arm's  length, 
and  on  the  left  side,  then  returned  to  the  first  position. 

To  make  the  seventh  motion,  or  "  seven"  "  7,"  both  hands 
and  disks  are  extended  obliquely  upward  above  the  head, 
at  arm's  length  on  both  sides,  then  returned  to  the  first 
position. 

To  make  the  eighth  motion,  or  "  eight"  "  8,"  both  hands 
and  disks  are  extended  horizontally,  at  arm's  length,  on  both 
sides,  then  returned  to  the  first  position. 

To  make  the  ninth  motion,  or  "nine"  "9,"  both  hands 
and  disks  are  extended  obliquely  downward,  at  arm's  length, 
on  both  sides,  then  returned  to  the  first  position. 

To  make  the  tenth  motton,  or  "the  cipher"  "0,"  both 
hands  and  disks  are  held  together,  at  arm's  length,  above 
the  head,  one  disk  covering  the  other,  then  returned  to  the 
first  position. 

The   General  Service   Homographic  Alphabet  is  as 

follows : 

A— 11  F— 12  K— 13  P— 14  U— 15 

B— 21  G— 22  L— 23  Q— 24    V— 16 

C— 31  H— 32  M— 33  R— 34  W— 25 

D— 41  1—42  N— 43  S— 44  X— 35 

E— 51  J— 52  0—53  T— 54  Y— 45   Z— 55 

Numerals. 

1—1  4—4  7—7 
2—2  5—5  8 — 8 
3—3      6—6      9—9      0—0 


MANUAL  OF   SIGNALS.  1-17 

Code  Signals. 

The  following  code  signals  are  made  as  described  for  the 
General  Service  Code  of  two  elements — a  Disk  being  waved 
instead  of  a  Flag- : 

3 — End  of  a  word. 

33 — End  of  a  sentence. 

333 — End  of  a  message.  • 

22.22.22.3 — Signal  of  assent:  "I  understand,"  or  "Mes- 
sage is  received  and  understood,"  or  "I  see  your  signals," 
or  affirmative  generally. 

22.22.22.333 — Cease  signalling. 

121.121.121— Repeat. 

212121— Error. 

211.211.211 — Move  a  little  to  the  right. 

221.221.221 — Move  a  little  to  the  left. 

Disk  waved  successively  from  side  to  side  until  attention 
is  attracted — "Attention,  look  for  signals  from  this  point." 

Abbreviations. 


a — after 

b — before. 

c — can. 

h — have 

n  — not. 

r — are. 

t — the. 

u — you. 

lr — your. 

W — word. 

wi — with. 

y— why. 

The  enumeration  of  this  alphabet  is  nearly  similar  to  that 
of  six  elements,  made  after  the  Polybian  method,  and 
adopted  by  Mr.  Swain. 

The  signals  given  in  the  code  for  the  numeral  digits  are 
to  be  used  when  numbers,  not  occurring  in  messages,  are  to 
be  signalled,  as  occurs  in  Naval  Signal  Codes,  etc. 

Numbers  given  in  any  message  are  either  spelled  at 
length,  or  the  Roman  letters  arc  used. 

If  it  happens  that  the  signals  for  numbers  are  to  be  used 
in  a  message,  a  wave  of  the  <lisk  must    be  made  :it   the  be- 


148  MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS. 

ginning  and  at  the  end  of  the  completed  number,  to  clearly 
distinguish  the  numeral  signals  from  the  letter  signals. 

In  the  alphabet,  there  are  used  six  only  of  the  signal 
motions  previously  described,  for  the  reason  that  it  is  not 
necessary  to  use  more ;  and  these  six  can  be  made  by  a 
single  motion  of  a  single  arm  for  each  signal. 

Two  motions,  neither  more  nor  less,  are  required  to  make 
each  letter. 

Each  numeral  character  is  indicated  by  a  single  motion. 
Thus  to  make  293,  but  three  motions  are  needed. 

Messages  are  transmitted  under  the  General  Rules  for 
Sending,  Receiving,  Ordering,  and  Recording  signals. 

For  illustration  :  To  communicate,  by  such  signals,  the 
word  "  ship,"  the  signalman,  being  in  first  position  with 
the  disk  flat  on  his  breast,  to  make  the  letter  "  S,"  "  four 
four"  "  44,"  the  left  hand  and  disk  are  extended  slowly  ob- 
liquely upward,  at  arm's  length,  and  on  the  left  side,  and 
returned  to  the  first  position,  thus  making  the  signal  "  four" 
"  4  ;"  and  are  again  extended,  without  pause,  in  the  same 
manner,  and  again  returned  to  the  first  position,  thus  mak- 
ing the  signal  "  four"  "  4,"  again.  There  is  thus  made  the 
signal  "  four  four"  "  44,"  or  the  letter  given.  A  pause  of 
two  seconds. 

To  make  the  letter  "  H,"  or  "  three  two"  "  32,"  the  right 
hand  and  disk  are  extended  slowly  obliquely  downward,  at 
arm's  length,  and  on  the  right  side,  then  returned  to  the 
first  position  ;  thus  making  the  signal  "  three"  "  3 ;"  then, 
without  pause,  the  right  hand  and  disk  are  extended  slow- 
ly horizontally,  at  arm's  length,  and  on  the  right  side,  then 
returned  to  the  first  position,  thus  making  the  signal  "two" 
"  2."  Pause.  There  has  thus  been  made  the  signal  "  three 
two"  "  32,"  the  letter  given.     A  pause. 

To  make  the  letter  "  I,"  or  "  four  two"  "  42,"  the  left  hand 
and  disk  are  extended  slowly  obliquely  upward,  at  arm's 
length,  on  the  left  side,  then  returned  to  the  first  position, 


MANUAL  OF   SIGNALS.  149 

thus  making  the  signal  "four'"  or  "4;"  then  without  pause, 
the  right  hand  and  disk  arc  extended  slowly  horizontally,  at 
arm's  length,  and  on  the  right  side,  then  returned  to  the 
first  position,  making  thus  the  signal  "four  two"  "42,"  or 
the  letter  given.     A  pause. 

To  signal  the  letter  "P,"  or  "one  four"  "  14,"  the  right 
hand  and  disk  are  extended  slowly  obliquely  upward,  at 
arm's  length,  and  on  the  right  side,  then  returned  to  the 
first  position,  thus  making  the  signal  "  one"  "  1  ;"  then,  with- 
out pause,  the  left  arm  and  disk  are  extended  slowly  ob- 
liquely upward,  at  arm's  length,  and  on  the  left  side,  then 
returned  to  the  first  position,  thus  making  the  signal  "four" 
"4."  There  is  made  thus  the  signal  "one  four"  "14,"  or 
the  letter  given.     A  pause. 

We  have  signalled  thus,  letter  by  letter,  the  word  "  Ship." 
To  indicate  that  the  word  is  completed,  the  "end  of  word" 
signal,  code  signal  "  3,"  is  made. 

The  positions  of  the  disks  just  described  resemble  those 
proposed  for  a  military  code,  attempted  many  years  ago  in 
Europe,  and  illustrated  in  1805  by  Mr.  Spencer,  its  in- 
ventor. 

Holographic  Night  Signals. 

The  signalman  is  equipped  for  nomographic  Night  Sig- 
nals, by  having  fastened  at  the  height  of  his  waist,  a  lantern 
as  a  reference  light,  and  holding  a  lantern  in  his  hand.  The 
lantern  at  the  waist  should  be  red,  or  easily  distinguishable 
from  the  moving  lantern  by  its  color  or  by  its  brilliancy. 
The  motions  and  positions,  indicating  the  figures  and  num- 
bers, are  made  in  precisely  the  same  way,  and  haye  precisely 
the  same  meanings  as  those  already  described  for  Homo- 
graphic  Day  Signals.  In  like  manner  all  the  rules  and  prac- 
tices given  for  day  signals  apply  equally  at  night. 

For  alphabetic  signals  it  will  be  necessary  to  use  only  one 
red  light  fastened  at  the  waist,  and  one  white  light  to  be 


150  MANUAL  OF   SIGNALS. 

held  in  either  hand,  as  the  signal  may  require.  It  will  be 
noticed,  that  no  signal  requiring  the  display  of  three  lights 
is  used  in  the  alphabetic  code. 

In  code  signals,  where  any  of  the  numeral  digits  may  be 
required  to  be  signalled  to  indicate  the  higher  numbers,  the 
signalman  must  be  equipped  with  three  lights.  (Plate  X, 
Fig.  2.) 

With  a  little  practice,  night  signals  of  this  kind  can  be 
read  as  rapidly  as  those  used  for  the  day. 

With  these,  as  with  all  other  signals,  care  should  be  taken 
that  the  signalman  exactly  faces  the  point  to  which  the 
message  is  sent. 

Returning  oe  Repeating   Homographic  Signals. 

In  using  signals  of  this  character,  when  there  is  any  diffi- 
culty in  the  reading,  as  may  be. from  the  heavy  rolling  of 
a  ship  or  other  causes,  each  signal  made  must  be  kept  in 
view — the  disk  held  at  arm's  length,  and  not  returned  to  the 
first  position — until  the  signal  is  seen  to  be  repeated  by  the 
signalman  at  the  receiving  station.  When  the  hand  and 
disk  of  the  signalman  at  the  sending  station  return  to  the 
first  position,  the  hand  and  disk  of  the  signalman  at  the  re- 
ceiving station  will,  in  the  same  manner,  resume  the  first 
position.  This  plan,  which  causes  no  delay  in  the  working, 
may  be  resorted  to  at  any  time  to  render  absolutely  certain 
that  a  message  is  correctly  received  at  the  receiving  station. 
Each  signal  made  by  one  party  being  thus  returned  by  the 
other,  before  the  next  signal  is  made,  there  can  be  no  ques- 
tion as  to  its  accuracy. 

The  act  of  Returning  Signals,  to  show  that  they  have  been 
recognized,  differs  from  Repeating  Signals  to  be  read  by  a 
third  station.  In  the  former  instance,  the  signalman  return- 
ing signals,  faces  toward  the  sending  station,  from  which 
they  are  received.     In  the  latter  instance,  the  signalman  i'aces 


MANUAL  OF  SIGNALS.  151 

away  from  the  sending  station,  and  toward  the  third  sta- 
tion. 

In  case  a  signal  is  for  any  reason  to  he  repeated  by  the 
receiving  station,  the  hand  and  disk  of  the  signalman,  al 
the  sending  station,  are  held  extended  in  each  motion,  until 
the  hand  and  disk  of  the  signalman  at  the  receiving  station 
are  seen  to  be  extended  in  the  same  manner,  and  to  make 
the  same  signal  toward  the  next  station. 

Xo  station  resumes  the  first  position  until  it  has  seen  the 
signal  position  correctly  taken  by  the  station  next  to  it  in 
the  succession. 

The  pauses  between  the  letters  serve  to  indicate  the  sepa- 
ration of  the  letter-signals.  The  waves  of  the  disk  at  the 
end  of  each  word  indicate  the  completion  of  the  word,  and 
both  pauses  and  pause-signals  must  be  returned  or  repeated 
at  the  receiving  station,  precisely  as  they  are  made  at  the 
sending  station. 


o 


Application  to  Signal  Books. 

When  messages  are  not  to  be  transmitted  verbatim,  but 
are  to  be  indicated  by  certain  different  numbers,  each  num- 
ber standing  for  a  complete  message,  as  is  the  case  with 
codes  of  naval  signals,  or  boat  codes,  the  different  numerals 
are  exhibited  by  making  the  different  motions  indicating 
the  figures  that  make  up  the  number  in  their  proper  order ; 
thus,  to  make  the  number  1954,  which  may  stand  for  any 
sentence,  there  are  made  a  first  motion,  "  one"  "  1,"  followed 
by  a  ninth  motion,"  nine"  "9,"  followed  by  a  fifth  motion, 
"  five"  "  5,"  followed  by  a  fourth  motion,  "  four"  "  4,"— sig- 
nalling thus,  1954.  Pause-signal,  to  indicate  number  com- 
plete; 

To  make  163,  there  would  be  a  first  motion,  "one"  "  1," 
followed  by  a  sixth  motion,  "six"  "6,"  followed  by  a  third 
motion,  "three"  "3," — making  thus  the  number  Hi:!. 

To  make  104,  there  would  be  a  first  motion,  "one"  "  1," 


152  MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS. 

followed  by  a  tenth  motion,  "  naught"  "  0,"  followed  by  a 
fourth  motion,  "  four"  "4" — "104;"  and  so  for  any  num- 
ber, whether  it  consists  of  a  greater  or  less  number  of 
figures. 

As  in  the  case  of  letter-signals,  these  numbers  may  be  re- 
quired to  be  signalled  back,  figure  by  figure,  from  the  re- 
ceiving station,  when  accuracy  must  be  rendered  absolutely 
certain  ;  or  when,  for  any  reason,  it  is  desirable  they  should 
be  thus  returned.  When  circumstances  will  permit,  and 
there  are  conveniences  for  woi"king,  it  is  desirable  to  make 
this  style  of  repetition  the  usage. 

Or  it  may  be  necessary  to  repeat  code  signals  from  sta- 
tion to  station,  in  the  mode  already  described. 

Orders  in  Homographic  Signals. 

t 

When  homographic  signals  are  made  by  the  signalman, 
each  letter-number  is  called  off  briskly  as  an  order,  the  sig- 
nalman making  promptly,  on  hearing  the  order,  those  mo- 
tions which  indicate  the  figures  of  the  numbers  called. 
Thus,  to  make  "  A,"  "  eleven"  is  ordered,  and  two  "  ones" 
are  promptly  made.  To  make  "  H,"  "  thirty-two"  is  ordered, 
and  the  motions  "  three"  "  3,"  "  two"  "  2,"  are  promptly 
made.  To  make  "  N","  "  forty-three"  is  ordered,  and  the 
motions  "four"  "4,"  "three"  "3,"  are  promptly  made. 
And  thus  for  any  letters  of  the  alphabet. 

The  pause-signal  is  ordered  by  calling  "  Code  three." 
Close  of  sentence  is  ordered  by  the  call  "  Code  thii*ty-three." 
End  of  message  is  ordered  by  calling  "  Code  three  thirty- 
three."  Four  pause-signals  in  succession  are,  "  Cease  sig- 
nalling." 

The  "error-signal,"  signal  for  "  assent,"  "  repeat,"  etc, 
are  made  by  waving  the  disk  from  side  to  side,  by  the  same 
motions  as  in  flag  signals,  and  are  ordered  by  the  same  com- 
mand, preceded,  in  every  instance,  by  the  word  "  Code." 


MANUAL  OF   SIGNALS.  153 

With  practised  signalmen,  the  letter,  word,  or  clause  of  a 
sentence  to  be  transmitted  may  be  given  without  the  orders 
for  the  signal-numbers. 


o 


Recording  Homographic  Signals. 

When  homographic  signals  are  used,  each  number  as  seen 
signalled  may  be  taken  down  in  numbers  on  paper,  and  after- 
wards read  by  reference  to  the  alphabet.  The  numbers  of 
signals  seen  may,  in  particular  instances,  be  -written  succes- 
sively without  stops  or  distances  between  them,  and  the 
figures  of  this  record  be  pointed  oft*  by  twos  when  it  is  to  be 
translated.  It  is  known,  when  they  are  pointed  oft',  that 
each  pair  of  figures  must  stand  for  a  letter. 

In  this  homographic  code,  as  in  all  codes  in  which  each 
letter  is  indicated  by  a  certain  and  always  the  same  number 
of  symbols,  it  need  not  cause  confusion  if  the  two  signals 
which  together  indicate  a  letter  are  made  irregularly  as  to 
time,  for  if  any  one  signal  is  seen,  the  receiver  is  aware  that 
this  is  a  part  only  of  a  letter,  and  he  waits,  be  the  interval 
longer  or  shorter,  until  he  has  seen  the  second  signal  of  that 
letter  before  he  records  the  letter  as  completed. 

A  message  to  be  signalled,  may  be  written  in  numbers 
without  giving  to  the  signalist  any  clue  to  the  meaning. 
*  Of  course  the  letters  of  the  alphabet  may  be  indicated  by 
any  numbers  at  the  will  of  the  commander,  and  messages  be 
thus  transmitted,  of  which  none  but  the  corresponding  com- 
mander would  know  the  meaning.  Thus  "A,"  instead  of 
being  indicated  by  "eleven"  "  11,"  may  be  indicated  by 
"twenty-nine"  "29;"  "D,"  instead  of  "  twenty-one"  "21," 
might  be  "eighty-seven"  "87;"  and  so  for  any  arbitrary 
changes  deemed  proper. 

A  new  alphabet  can  be  written  at  any  time  in  a  few  mo- 
ments. For  purposes  of  secrecy,  this  may  sometimes  be  ne- 
cessary.   Each  letter  of  the  alphabet  is  at  all  times  indicated 


154  MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS. 

by  two  figures,  and  no  more.     With  practice,  words  may  be 
signalled  by  this  code  with  very  great  rapidity. 

Applications. 

Number-signals,  by  this  code  often  elements,  may  be  made 
for  any  number  that  may  be  necessary  in  using  naval  codes, 
or  codes  arranged  for  many  messages,  to  show  the  whole  of 
any  given  number  of  several  places  at  once,  by  placing  in 
sight,  and  side  by  side,  several  men,  each  man  standing  in 
the  signal-position  proper  to  represent  a  figure  of  the  num- 
ber. Thus,  Plate  XVIII,  Fig.  3,  to  show  the  number  3478, 
four  men  are  shown  side  by  side,  about  six  feet  apart.  These 
are  numbered  from  right  to  left  of  the  sending  signalist,  who 
stands  behind  them  and  faces  the  communicating  stations  as 
Nos.  1,  2,  3,  and  4. 

These  men  assume  the  signal-position  upon  hearing  the 
signal-number  called,  each  man  being  previously  informed 
which  figure-symbol  of  the  whole  number  he  is  to  sym- 
bolize. 

Then,  at  the  call  "  three-four-seven-eight,"  for  "3478," 
No.  1  takes  the  signal-position  for  the  first  figure, "  3."  No.  2 
takes  the  position  for  the  second  figure,  "  4.''  No.  3  takes 
the  position  for  the  third  figure,  "  7."  No.  4  takes  the  po- 
sition for  the  fourth  figure,  "  8."    Thus  for  whatever  number. 

The  signal  is  recognized  at  the  receiving  station  by  either 
a  conventional  signal  or  by  repeating  the  signal  seen. 
Signal-numbers  made  in  this  way  are  always  made  from 
right  to  left  of  the  sender,  and  are  read  from  left  to  right 
of  the  reader. 

The  conventional  signals  must  be  predetermined.  This 
mode  of  communication  may  be  needed,  as  when  the  rolling 
of  a  ship  or  boat  makes  it  impossible  to  steadily  fix  the  glass 
upon  a  position.  When  it  may  be  wished  to  conceal  the 
fact  that  signals  are  made,  the  signalmen  may  be  sheltered 
from  observation. 


~*n 


Ml 


-  r. 


"*T"Hli  r" 


,_I 


MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS.  155 

The  General  Service  Homographic  Alphabet  may  be  Big- 
nalized  by  any  of  the  devices  before  described  for  other 
codes. 


Field  Signals  may  be  made  with  a  Field  Semaphore,  con- 
structed of  very  common  materials.  (Plate  XVIII,  Figs. 
4,5,0.) 

Let  A  be  any  upright  pole  or  post,  however  light,  pro- 
vided it  can  sustain  the  weight  of  the  light  arms. 

B,  C,  arms  made  of  light  boards,  or  staves,  or  canes,  with 
any  visible  disks  or  objects  attached  at  the  outer  extremi- 
ties. The  working-strings  or  cords  are  attached  at  the  inner 
extremities,  and  here  are  fastened  weights,  as  shot  or  stones, 
to  nearly  balance  the  arms  upon  the  pivot. 

Let  D  be  a  pivot  passing  through  both  arms,  a  foot  or 
eighteen  inches  from  their  inner  extremity.  This  pivot  is 
so  arranged  that  the  arms  move  freely  upon  it.  It  may  be 
an  iron  bolt  or  a  pivot  of  wood. 

These  are  the  Positions :  Rest,  and  ten  Signal  Positions, 
the  arms  of  the  semaphore  taking  for  each  signal-number 
the  position  as  described  for  the  arms  of  the  man  in  Homo- 
graphic  Signals.  The  signals,  "  attention,"  "  error,"  "  re- 
peat," etc.  Conventional  signals  are  made  by  any  selected 
]  m >sit  ions  of  one  arm  of  the  semaphore.  The  other  arm  being 
for  all  of  these  signals  kept  horizontal. 

The  arms,  which  of  their  own  weight  hang  with  the  outer 
extremities  downward,  are  brought  into  any  position  by 
ill  awing  upon  the  cords.  This  semaphore  is  constructed  of 
the  roughest  materials,  and  can  be  anywhere  erected  and 
made  ready  for  work  with  a  few  moments'  labor. 

It  may  be  used  at  night  by  attaching  lanterns  at  the  arm- 
ends,  and  distinguishing  a  reference-sight  at  the  pivot. 

Signals  with  this  semaphore  are  always  numbered  from 


156  MANUAL   OF    SIGNALS. 

right  to  left  of  the  sender,  and  are  read  from  left  to  right  of 
the  reader. 

When  lines  of  semaphores  are  used,  the  signal  at  each  is 
kept  in  view  until  it  is  seen  correctly  repeated  at  the  next 
in  succession.  If  a  line  of  several  semaphores  is  to  he 
worked,  an  additional  piece  must  be  attached  to  the  up- 
right, as  at  Fig.  5,  to  render  the  direction  of  the  working 
clear. 

Semaphores  of  this  description  may  be  attached  to  and 
worked  at  the  mast-heads  of  vessels. 


The  letter-signals  heretofore  given  may  be  signified  by 
any  six  motions  or  positions,  made  or  taken  in  reference  to 
some  given  or  fixed  position. 

Or  by  any  mode  in  which  six  differing  impressions  can 
be  made  upon  any  sense ;  as  with  any  six  positions  of  a 
musket. 

Or  any  six  differing  motions  of  a  flag. 

Or  for  writing  by  any  six  different  marks  upon  paper. 

Or  by  any  six  differing  appearances  of  objects  hoisted 
into  view. 

Or  by  any  six  differing  colors,  motions,  sounds,  flashes,  or 
indications  of  any  description.  The  modes  by  which  these 
are  produced  are  already  illustrated. 

Signals  by  Flashes  and  Occultations. 

Codes  of  ten  elements  may  be  signalized  very  simply  and 
usefully  by  flashes  of  a  single  light. 

The  most  powerful  calcium  or  magnesium  light  may  be 
used  for  this  purpose ;  or  the  flashes  may  be  those  of  any 
kind  of  lantern,  or  torch,  or  brand,  or  luminous  object. 
There  are  used  flashes  and  pauses. 

To   symbolize  "  one,"  make  "  one  flash ;"    to  symbolize 


MANUAL  OF  SIGNALS.  157 

" two,"  make  " two  flashes;"  to  symbolize  "three,"  make 
"three  flashes;"  to  symbolize  "four,"  make  "four  flashes;" 

and  so  on, — the  number  of  flashes  exactly  corresponding 
with  the  numeral  digit.  The  pauses  are  intervals  of  dark-* 
ness.  There  are  short  pauses  between  the  letter-signals  of 
each  letter,  longer  pauses  between  the  completed  letters, 
and  at  the  end  of  words.  Or  "  end  of  word"  may  be  a  long 
flash. 

The  code  combinations  consist  each  of  two  figures.  The 
first  figure  is  indicated  by  flashes  before  a  pause ;  the  second 
figure  is  indicated  by  flashes  after  a  pause. 

Thus  to  make  "A,"  or  "eleven"  "11,"  "one  flash— a 
pause — one  flash." 

To  make  "  C,"  "thirty-one,"  "31,"  "three  flashes— a 
pause — one  flash." 

To  make  "J,"  "fifty-two"  "52,"  "five  flashes— a  pause 
— two  flashes." 

To  make  "R,"  "thirty-four"  "84,"  "three  flashes— a 
pause — four  flashes ;"  and  so  for  all  combinations. 

The  flashes  of  each  combination  are  made  closely  to- 
gether, and  the  pause  is  so  short  as  to  distinguish  it  easily 
from  the  longer  pause  between  letters,  and  that  still  longer 
between  words.  The  pause  may  be,  say  for  the  symbol- 
pause,  one  second  time;  the  letter-pause,  two  seconds;  the 
word-pause,  four  seconds. 

Assent  is  "  2  2  2,"  ordered  "  two-two-two." 

Error  is  "  6,"  ordered  "  six." 

Clause  signal  is  "  3,"  ordered  "  three."  , 

Repeat  is  "  4  4  4,"  ordered  "  four-four-four." 

End  of  message  is  "  3  3  3." 

For  illustration,  to  signal  "  on  board,"  the  signal-letters 
are  "53.43—21.53.11.34.41.333."     Signals  =  "  five  flashes 
— pause  (one  second  or  symbol-pause) — three  flashes  (.">::) ;" 
pause  two  seconds  (a  letter  pause),  "four  flashes — pause 
three  flashes   (43);"    pause  four  seconds   (a  word-pause), 


158  MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS. 

"two  flashes — pause — one  flush  (21);"  pause  two  seconds, 
"  five  flashes — pause — three  flashes  (53) ;"  letter-pause,  "  one 
flash — pause — one  flash  (11);"  letter-pause,  "three  flashes 
■ — pause — four  flashes  (34)  ;"  letter-pause,  "  four  flashes — 
pause — one  flash  (41);"  letter-pause,  "three  flashes — three 
flashes— three  flashes  (333)." 

This  plan  lias  been  described  at  length,  in  order  that  it 
may  be  thoroughly  practised.  The  signalist  should  be  able 
to  distinguish  each  letter  by  its  flashes  without  thought,  as 
the  letters  are  recognized  in  print. 

To  make  these  flashes  in  the  field,  a  common  signal-lantern 
may  be  flashed  from  a  bucket.     (Plate  XVIII,  Fig.  9.) 

Or  it  may  be  flashed  from  a  hole  dug  in  the  ground  ;  or 
from  behind  a  folded  blanket ;  or  from  behind  a  little  em- 
bankment ;  or  from  behind  a  log  or  a  board,  or  any  screen 
devisable.  Or  a  lighted  portfire  may  be  used  instead  of  a 
lantern ;  or  a  lighted  case  of  any  composition  fire  may  be 
used  ;  or  any  light  torch,  or  fire-ball,  or  a  brand  from  a  com- 
mon fire.  Or  a  fire  may  be  flashed  by  raising  and  lowering 
a  blanket  befoi'e  it. 

It  will  be  seen  that  flashes  can  be  made  from  any  part  of 
a  fort  or  vessel.  They  may  be  shown  above  a  parapet  or 
through  a  port-hole,  or  through  any  window  of  a  house. 
The  light  of  a  light-house  may  be  flashed  by  covering  it 
with  a  hat  or  screen.  The  common  ship-light  or  steamer- 
lio-ht  can  be  used.  The  head-li<dit  of  a  locomotive  would 
be  visible  for  many  miles. 

At  lesser  distances  the  light  need  not  be  flashed,  but  held 
in  the  hand,  and  waved  in  any  direction,  a  wave  represent- 
ing each  flash. 

Any  obscuration  of  the  light  will  answer  as  well  as  a 
marked  flash.  So  for  secret  signalling:  a  person  sitting  at 
a  table  in  a  room  lighted  by  a  single  light,  may  flash  the 
light  by  any  device.  The  change  of  light  on  the  lighted 
windows  can  convey  any  message  to  a  skilled  observer  out- 


M  LNUAL  OF  SIGNALS.  159 

side.    So  any  beam  of  light  passing  out  through  any  crevice 

may  be  utilized.  Or  a  person  passing  between  a  light  and 
a  window  the  proper  times  with  intervals,  may  give  any 
preconcerted   signal.      The   reader  will   comprehend    how 

messages  may  be  sent  by  even  the  tapping  of  one  finger  on 
a  table.  Or  by  any  motion  that  can  be  made  with  it. 
Such  signals  may  be  useful  when  blockading  vessels  have 
agents  on  shore  to  notify  them  of  any  movement;  or  in  the 
ease  of  invested  forts;  or  they  may  be  used  by  prisoners. 


One  of  the  best  apparatus  for  night  signals  by  flashes 
when  it  may  be  necessary  to  turn  the  flash  in  a  single  direc- 
tion, and  that  it  be  invisible  from  any  other  direction,  is  a 
lantern  fitted  precisely  as  the  magic  lantern,  and  furnished 
with  a  single  glass  "  slide,"  like  a  picture-slide,  colored  red 
for  half  its  length,  and  black  for  the  remainder.  When 
ready  for  signalling,  the  slide  being  adjusted  and  moved,  the 
messages  are  transmitted  in  plain  flashes — the  flashes  being 
cut  off  by  the  black  section  of  the  slide.  The  conventional 
signals  are  by  red  flashes — and  while  the  lantern  is  at  rest, 
it  is  made  to  show  a  red  light.  The  red  flash  is  also  used 
to  call  attention.  The  lantern  must  be  fitted  with  "  sights," 
so  that  the  flash  may  be  correctly  directed  by  "  sighting," 
at  the  communicating  station.     (Plate  XX,  Fig.  5.) 


Flash  signals  are  of  the  same  character  as  Day  signals  by 
Oecultations.  Any  thing  may  be  obscured  in  any  way  and 
flashed  into  view.  A  handkerchief  may  be  swung  into  view, 
or  it  may  be  held  in  the  hand  and  waved  once  for  "  one  ;" 
twice  for  "  two,"  and  so  on.  Or  to  do  away  with  the  pauses, 
all  the  waves  on  the  right  of  the  signalist  may  be  reckoned 


160  MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS. 

as  standing  for  the  first  figures  of  combinations,  all  the  waves 
on  the  left  as  for  the  second  figures. 

Or  any  flag,  or  ball,  or  object  may  be  flashed,  waving  into 
view  above  a  parapet  or  any  screen.    t 

Or  a  shutter-shaped  signal  may  be  fitted  to  stand  with  its 
edo-e  toward  the  observer,  and  be  made  to  flash  into  view  as 
has  been  before  described. 

Or  a  flag,  or  any  signal,  lowered  a  few  feet  from  a  mast- 
head may  be  run  up  once  for  "  one,"  twice  for  "  two,"  and 
so  for  any  number. 

Or  any  article,  or  any  mode  by  which  can  be  made  signs 
sufficiently  distinct  to  be  counted,  can  be  employed.  The 
applications  are  illimitable,  and  can  be  infinitely  varied.  It 
is  almost  impossible  to  prevent  communication. 

After  the  same  manner  signals  of  ten  elements  may  be 
made  by  sounds,  as  taps  upon  a  drum  or  bell,  or  short  blasts 
of  whistles  or  of  bugles. 

Thus  one  tap  for  "  one,"  two  taps  for  "  two,"  and  so  on. 
Thus:  To  make  "one  five"  "15,"  one  tap — a  pause — five 
taps.  To  make  "  two  nine"  "  29,"  two  taps — a  pause — nine 
taps.  To  make  "  three  six  five,"  three  taps — a  pause — six 
taps — a  pause — five  taps.  Longer  pauses  between  completed 
numbers. 

Ten  taps  stand  for  "  ten,"  and  also  for  the  cipher. 

The  sounds  may  be  of  any  intensity. 


Field  Signals  by  ten  elements  can  thus  be  made  by  any 
possible  indication.  Embracing  the  numeral  digits  and  the 
cipher,  the  plans  for  them  have  entered  into  general  use. 

Thus  codes  often  elements  are  symbolized  by  the  Coston 
Lights,  as  will  be  understood  by  an  examination  of  the  plans 
for  the  lights. 

Or  signals  of  ten  elements  may  be  made  with  any  ten  flags, 


MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS.  1G1 

as  in  codes  of  naval  signals.  The  ingenuity  of  all  ages  has 
been  turned  upon  codes  of  this  order. 

Codes  of  whatever  character  or  number  of  elements,  less 
than  ten,  can  be  signified  by  using  a  part  only  of  a  code  of 
signals  often  elements. 

The  modes  of  operating  with  ten  elements,  may  be  infi- 
nitely  extended.  The  student  should  be  practised  in  the 
use  of  signals  of  this  order,  in  forming  codes  by  them,  and 
in  the  transmission  of  messages,  until  the  use  has  become 
familiar  and  so  well  acquired  that  it  will  not  be  forgotten. 

TO  RAPIDLY  MEMORIZE  A  CODE. 

The  following  mnemotechnic  plan  will  sometimes  be 
useful : 

Letters. 


w 
O 
« 
O 


If  the  alphabet  is  arranged  as  above  for  a  Homographic 
or  Position  code,  it  will  be  found  that,  reading  the  columns 
from  left  to  right,  we  have  five  mnemotechnic  words: 

1st.  Afkpuv — pronounced  Af-kay-puv. 

2d.  Bglqw — pronounced  Be-jel-kew-double-you". 

3d.  Chmbx — pronounced  Chemaeex. 

4th.  Dixsy — pronounced  Dixsy. 

5th.  Ejotz — pronounced  Ejotz. 
The  effort  being  to  pronounce  each  letter  in  each  word. 
The  first  of  these  words,  "Afkpuv,"  has  six  letters.  Each 
of  the  others  has  five  letters.  Commit  these  words  to 
memory,  and  in  the  order  given,  so  as  to  know  them  as  first, 
second,  third,  fourth,  and  fifth  words.     Memorize  the  letters 


1st. 

2d. 

3d. 

4th. 

5  th. 

6  th 

1st. 

A 

F 

K 

P 

U 

V 

2d. 

B 

G 

L 

Q 

w 

3d. 

C 

H 

M 

R 

X 

4th. 

D 

I 

N 

S 

Y 

5  th. 

E 

J 

0 

T 

Z 

162  MANUAL   OF    SIGNALS. 

in  each  word  as  first,  second,  third,  fourth,  fifth,  and  sixth 

letters  in  that  word. 

To  recall  the  signal-numbers  of  any  letter  of  the  alphabet, 

pronounce  the  words  in  succession  until  that  is  reached  in 

which  the  letter  is  found,  note  the  number  of  the  word  and 

the  number  of  the  letter  in  the  word.     These  two  numbers, 

taken  together,  will   be  the  signal-number  of  that    letter. 

Thus  the  letter  "M"  is  in  "  Chmrx"  —the  third  word.     It 

is  the  third   letter  in  that  word.      The  signal-number  of 

"  M"  is  "  33."     The  letter  "  T"  is  in  Ejotz— the  fifth  word. 

It  is  the  fourth  letter  in  that  word.     The  signal-number  of 

"  T"  is  "  54."     "  P"  is  in  the  first  word— the  fourth  letter. 
a  p»  js  u  14  »      u  y»  ig  jn  FIRgT  wor<J5  t^e  SIXTH  letterj  «  16<» 

Suppose  the  word  "  Able"  given  to  be  signalled. 
A  is  1st  word,  1st  letter — signal  "  11." 
B  is  2d  word,  1st  letter — signal  "21." 
L  is  2d  word,  3d  letter — signal  "  23." 
E  is  5th  word,  1st  letter — signal  "51." 
The    signals    then   are   "  11— 21— 23— 51— A-b-l-e."      A 
signal  alphabet  can,  by  this  process,  be  thoroughly  learned 
witli  an  hour's  practice. 

A  class  practised  in  this  Alphabet,  and  in  the  Positions 
and  Motions,  in  the  morning,  can  be  put  in  the  field  for  ex- 
ercise in  the  afternoon.  They  will  need  only  pencil  and 
paper  to  note  down  the  signal-numbers  they  wish  to  send, 
or  which  they  may  receive. 

This  code  may  be  so  committed  that  it  will  never  be  for- 
gotten. An  officer  practised  in  its  use,  and  having  his  pocket 
telescope,  can  never,  while  in  view,  be  cut  off  from  communi- 
cation with  his  fellow-officers  similarly  instructed. 


Field  signals  of  eleven,  twelve,  and  other  greater  numbers 
of  elements,  are  used  with  permanent  semaphores  only,  and 


MANUAL   OF    SIGNALS.  1(13 

in  envious  plans  for  naval  flags.  By  increasing  the  number 
of  elements  used,  the  number  of  arrangements,  showing  few 
flags  in  each  arrangement, is  very  greatly  increased.  Thus, 
using  sixteen  different  flags,  thfcre  can  be  exhibited  two  hun- 
dred and  forty  different  signals,  showing  only  two  flags  at  a 
time,  or  "in  a  hoist."  There  can  be  exhibited  three  thou- 
sand, three  hundred  and  sixty  signals,  showing  only  three 
flags  "at  a  hoist/'  There  can  lie  shown  four  thousand,  three 
hundred  and  sixty-eight  signals,  showing  four  flags  "in  a 
hoist."     (See  rules  of  combinations.) 

Lastly,  as  a  code  of  twenty-six  elements,  we  have  our  al- 
phabet with  twenty-six  elements,  each  a  symbol  of  sound 
or  sight. 

Any  twenty-six  different  signs  will  represent  all  the  let- 
ters, by  showing  a  distinct  sign  for  each.  Or,  if  twenty- 
six  sounds  or  notes  are  selected,  and  the  sound  of  each  be 
known  as  a  letter,  words  sounded  by  these  notes,  in  succes- 
sion, would  be  intelligible,  and  as  really  articulated  as 
though  they  were  spoken. 


The  lengthy  and  almost  cumbersome  descriptions  of  al- 
phabets and  of  processes  of  signalling,  heretofore  given,  have 
been  made  with  the  intention  to  so  impress  the  student  with 
the  simplicity  of  the  rules  for  forming  them,  and  the  ease 
with  which  the  letters  can  be  represented  by  signals,  that  he 
may  never  feel  at  a  loss  how  to  devise  a  signal  alphabet  for 
his  own  use,  or  how  to  at  once  form  the  signals  with  which 
to  use  it. 

Signals  will  not  be  used  as  much  as  they  ought  to  be 
until  this  simplicity  is  comprehended.  There  is  hardly  a 
military  or  naval  movement  but  in  which  they  may  be  of 
avail. 

The  soldiers  of  the  signal  corps  signal  their  messages  from 
camp  to  camp,  to  avoid  the  fatigue  and  save  the  time  of  a 


164  MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS. 

few  moments'  walk.  The  sailors  on  fleets  prefer  to  signal 
a  message  to  the  landings,  to  save  the  labor  of  a  boat's 
crew. 

It  can  hardly  happen  but  that  the  advantages  to  follow  a 
thorough  knowledge  of  the  uses  and  applications  of  signal- 
plans,  will  well  repay,  to  any  one  fitting  for  a  military  or 
naval  life,  the  little  time  which  must  be  diverted  from  other 
studies  to  acquire  it. 


CHRONOSEMIC  SIGXALS. 

One  of  the  most  interesting  inventions  of  semiologists  of 
the  present  day,  at  once  simple  and  effective,  is  that  of 
Chronosemic  or  Time  Signals,  as  they  may  be  called. 

This  plan  of  signalling,  resulting  from  the  studies  of 
B.  Franklin  Greene,  Esq.,  of  the  Navy  Department,  was 
recently  adopted  in  the  navy  of  the  United  States,  and  bids 
fair  to  be  productive  of  important  benefits  to  both  the  naval 
and  the  land  services. 

It  supplies  a  want  long  felt.  Thoroughly  understood  and 
skilfully  used,  it  will  render  intelligent  communication  and 
co-operation  practicable,  under  circumstances  which  have 
made  them  hitherto  impossible. 

Chronosemic  Signals  depend  for  their  meanings  upon  in- 
tervals of  time.  The  principle  will,  perhaps,  be  best  under- 
stood by  an  illustration.  If,  for  instance,  an  interval  of  one 
second  of  time,  taken  between  two  signals,  recognizable  by 
any  sense,  is  taken  to  represent  "one"  "1,"  then  two 
seconds  of  time  similarly  intervening  between  signs,  would 
stand  for  "  two"  "  2  ;"  three  seconds  intervening,  would  stand 
for  "  three"  "  3 ;"  four  seconds  intervening,  would  stand  for 


MANUAL  OF  SIGNALS.  .  165 

"four"  "4;"  five  seconds  intervening,  for  "five"  "5  ;"  nine 
seconds,  for  "  nine"  "  9 ;"  ami  in  this  way  for  all  the  numeral 
digits. 

The  interval  of  time  which  stands  for  "one."  is  called  the 
"initial  interval,"  or  "unit  of  interval."  It  may  be  of  less 
or  greater  length,  as  of  one  or  many  seconds.  This  is  de- 
termined  by  the  circumstances  under  which  the  signalling  is 
to  be  done.  The  interval  which  stands  for  "two,"  is  twice 
as  long  as  the  interval  which  stands  for  "one,"  because  the 
number  is  twice  as  great.  The  interval  which  stands  for 
"five,"  is  five  times  as  Ions:  as  the  interval  for  "one."  The 
interval  which  stands  for  "  nine/"  is  nine  times  as  long;  the 
principle  being,  that  the  unit  of  interval,  or  that  which  shall 
stand  for  one,  being  concerted,  all  the  other  numeral  digits 
are  designated  each  by  an  interval  as  many  times  greater 
than  that  standing  for  "  one,"  as  the  unit  "  one"  is  contained 
in  the  cdven  numeral. 

For  instance,  if  Ave  make  a  signal,  allow  a  second  of  time 
to  elapse  as  an  interval,  and  then  make  another  signal  to 
mark  the  close  of  the  interval,  there  is  signalled  "  one"  "  1." 
If  we  make  a  signal,  allow  an  interval  of  nine  seconds,  then 
make  another  signal,  there  is  signalled  "  nine"  "  9."  If  we 
make  a  signal,  allow  an  interval  of  five  seconds,  and  then 
make  another  signal,  there  is  signalled  "  5,"  thus  to  signal 
"19  5,"  or  "  195  ;"  we  make  a  sign,  allow  an  interval  of 
one  second  (for  "  one") ;  then  a  sign,  allow  an  interval  of 
nine  seconds  (for  "  nine") ;  then  a  sign,  allow  an  interval  of 
five  seconds  (for  "  five") ;  then  a  sign  to  mark  the  close  of 
the  interval  and  of  the  signal.  Now  if  the  initial  interval, 
or  interval  unit—/,  e.,. standing  for  the  unit  "  1" — had  been 
concerted  to  bejlve  seconds  of  time  instead  of  one  second 
of  time,  then  to  signal  "  1  9  5,"  Ave  make  a  sign  ;  allow  an 
interval  of  Jive  seconds  (for  "one")— a  sign;  allow  an  inter- 
val offortyfir,  seconds,  nine  times  the  interval  designating 
the  unit  interval  (for  "  nine") — a  sign;  allow  an  interval  of 


106  MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS. 

twenty-Jive  seconds,  five  times  that  for  one  (for  "  five") — a 
sign  to  close  the  signal. 

The  marking  signals  themselves  are,  in  this  style  of  sig- 
nalling, of  use  solely  to  attract  attention,  and  so  to  mark 
the  beginnings  and  the  endings  of  the  intervals. 

It  is  necessary  only  that  they  should  be  defined,  distinct, 
and  capable  of  marking  the  instant  with  precision. 

They  may  be,  therefore,  of  any  kind.  They  may  be  mo- 
tions, flashes,  objects  brought  into  view,  objects  hidden,  ob- 
jects in  positions,  sounds  of  guns,  trumpets,  bells,  drums, 
steam-blasts,  whistles,  flights  of  rockets,  explosions  of  candle- 
bombs, etc. 

The  following  explanation  of  Chronosemic  Signals  is  ex- 
tracted from  the  signal  code  of  the  United  States  Navy, 
prepared  under  the  direction  of  Rear-Admiral  Charles  H. 
Davis,  Chief  of  the  Naval  Bureau. 

Preliminary  Explanations. 

"  Chronosemic  Signals  have  resulted  from  an  attempt, 
primarily,  to  obtain  a  better  system  of  Fog  Signals  than  the 
systems  in  ordinary  use,  either  in  the  naval  or  commercial 
service. 

"  Instead  of  a  very  limited  number  of  special  signals  for 
use  during  fogs,  with  symbols  not  only  entirely  arbitrary, 
but  complicated  and  cumbrous  in  practice,  it  was  proposed, 
in  the  invention  of  Chronosemic  Signals,  to  devise  a  system 
which  should  be  applicable  to  the  various  signals  of  an  entire 
code,  whether  naval  or  commercial ;  with  the  use  of  symbols 
which  might  be  regarded  at  once  logical,  simple,  easy  of 
application,  and  susceptible  of  precision  and  certainty  in 
results. 

"  Every  system  of  Fog  Signals  must  be  based  upon  the 
use  of  sound-signs ;  and  these,  to  meet  the  requirements  of 
practical  use,  must  be  combined  with  certain  time-intervals, 


MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS.  107 

in  order  to  establish  definite  symbols  of  the  conventional 
ciphers  which  represent  the  signals  of  a  given  code. 

"The  naval  codes  of  the  United  States  and  of  other 
nations,  as  well  as  the  different  commercial  codes,  have,  as 
ciphers,  signal-numbers^  with  the  exception  of  the  Commer- 
cial Code  of  the  British  Board  of  Trade — used  also  in  the 
naval  and  commercial  services  of  the  United  States — which 
lias,  as  ciphers,  signal-Utters.  The  signal-numbers  are  made 
up  of  the  ten  elemental  figures,  0  to  9,  inclusive;  and  the 
signal-letters  consist  of  eighteen  letters  of  the  alphabet, 
permuted  in  sets  of  two,  three,  and  four  each.  In  general, 
numerical  ciphers,  or  signal-numbers,  give  rise  to  simpler 
signal  operations  than  alphabetical  ciphers,  or  signal-letters. 
The  embarrassment  of  impracticable  hoists  of  flags,  conse- 
quent upon  the  large  number  of  signals  in  the  Commercial 
Code,  and  which  led  to  the  adoption  of  the  signal-letters  of 
that  code,  may  be  considered  as  being  practically  removed 
with  the  use  of  Chronosemic  Symbols  ;  thus  admitting  the 
restoration  of  the  original  signal-numbers. 

"But  the  present  system,  although  originating  in  an  at- 
tempt to  develop  a  better  system  of  Fog  Signals,  is,  in 
reality,  an  entirely  general  one,  applicable  to  all  circum- 
stances, of  day  or  night,  open  weather  or  fog. 

"Chronosemic  Signals  present  the  following  advantages: 

"  1.  That,  as  a  system  of  Fog  Signals,  it  is  readily  applica- 
ble to  a  code  of  any  extent ;  so  that,  for  example,  any  sig- 
nal-numbers, even  of  the  Commercial  Code,  the  largest  of 
which,  requiring  five  figures,  may  be  made  with  as  much 
facility  and  certainty  in  the  densest  fog  as  under  an  open 
sky. 

"  2.  That,  whether  employed  during  fog  or  any  other  con- 
dition of  the  weather,  day  or  night,  this  system  makes  use 
of  the  most  simple  and  ordinary,  as  also  the  most  effective, 
appliances  for  making  signals  in  a  vessel  at  sea;  such  as 
ships'  guns,  steam-blasts,  trumpets,  or  bugle-sounds,  rockets, 


1G8  MANUAL  OF  SIGNALS. 

flashes  of  gunpowder,  signal-lanterns,  hoisting  and  lowering 
or  masking  a  flag  or  other  conspicuous  object,  etc. ;  requir- 
ing no  perplexing  and  uncertain  distinctions,  either  of  colors, 
arrangement  of  colors,  or  of  sounds. 

"  3.  That,  as  a  consequence  of  the  facility  with  which  this 
system  uses  the  most  simple  and  effective  means  for  making 
the  requisite  signs,  it  is  practicable  to  greatly  extend  the 
area  of  the  circle  of  available  signal-distance ;  as,  for  exam- 
ple, in  the  use  of  ships'  guns  and  rockets,  where  the  dis- 
tance may  be  extended  to  ten,  fifteen,  twenty,  or  more 
miles. 

"  4.  That,  as  a  consequence  of  the  simplicity  of  this  sys- 
tem in  sign-making  apparatus,  there  results  a  corresponding 
economy  of  expenditure,  alike  in  the  first  cost  of  signal  ap- 
paratus and  in  the  cost  of  consumable  stores  for  its  practi- 
cal use. 

Figure  Symbols.    • 

"  Chronosemic  or  Time-sign  Signals  are  based  upon  the. 
use  of  ten  different  figure-symbols,  respectively  representing 
the  ten  elemental  figures  0,  1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  7,  8,  9.  Each 
figure-symbol  consists  of  a  certain  interval,  preceded  and 
followed  by  a  sensible  sign. 

"  The  interval  characterizes  the  elemental  figure  for  which 
it  stands,  and  is  simply  an  interval  of  time  which  is  propor- 
tional to  the  number  of  units  in  the  figure  represented.  Thus 
the  interval  for  the  figure  4  is  twice  as  long  as  the  interval 
for  the  figure  2  ;  the  interval  for  the  figure  3  is  three  times 
as  long  as  the  interval  for  the  figure  1,  and  so  on.  The  in- 
terval for  the  figure  0  is  theoretically  nought,  or  zero ;  but 
as  the  initial  and  terminal  signs  would  be  identical  with  this 
condition,  and  become  undistinguishable,  this  interval  is 
simply  made  very  small — not  to  exceed  one  second — and  is 
thus  made  to  preserve  its  practical  significance. 

"In  order  to  develop  the  intervals,  a  convenient  unit  of 


MANUAL  OF  SIGNALS. 


1(59 


ink  rval  is  chosen.  This  .lone,  the  interval  for  the  6gure  l  is 
tlio  unit  itself;  the  interval  for  the  figure  2  is  twice  that 
unit;  the  interval  for  the  figure  3  is  three  limes  that  unit, 
and  so  on.  The  value  of  the  unit  chosen  depends  some- 
what on  circumstances.  It  should  not  lie  less  than  three 
seconds,  and  it  may  be  five,  ten.  or  any  other  convenient. 
number  of  seconds.  The  following  table  exhibits  the  inter- 
vals corresponding  to  each  figure  for  different  units  of  in- 
terval, such  as  3",  4",  5",  0",  and  10",  respectively. 

Table  of  corresponding  Intervals. 


Elemental 
figures. 

INTERVALS. 

Unit, 

Unit. 

Unit, 

Unit, 

Unit, 

3  seconds. 

4  seconds. 

5  seconds. 

6  seconds. 

in  seconds. 

Sec. 

Sec. 

Sec. 

Sec. 

Sec. 

0 

Very  small. 

Very  small. 

Very  small. 

Very  small. 

Very  small. 

1 

3 

4 

5 

6 

10 

2 

6 

8 

10 

12 

20 

3 

9 

12 

1.-, 

18 

30 

4 

12 

16 

20 

24 

40 

5 

15 

20 

25 

30 

50 

6 

18 

24 

30 

36 

60 

7 

21 

28 

35 

42 

70 

8 

24 

32 

40 

48 

80 

9 

27 

36 

45 

54 

90 

"  The  sign  which  precedes  and  follows  an  interval,  serves 
the  twofold  purpose  of  calling  attention  to  the  interval  and 
of  defining  its  limits.  The  conditions  to  be  fulfilled  by  the 
si^'iis  are,  therefore,  simply  those  of  fixing  the  initial  and 
terminal  epochs  of  the  intervals,  and  of  being  seen  or  heard 
over  the  desired  circle  of  signal  distance.  Objects,  how- 
ever simple,  which  admit  of  undergoing  changes  of  form,  of 
being  shown  and  masked,  or  of  changing  place,  may  be  used 
for  making  signs  addressed  to  the  eye;  ami  all  sounds,  how- 
ever made,  whether  explosive  or  continuous — -if  in  the  latter 

8 


170  MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS. 

case  they  admit  of  being  suspended,  intermitted,  or  other- 
wise changed — may  be  used  as  signs  addressed  to  the  ear. 

Signal-numbers. 

"  Any  signal-number  is  represented  by  an  arrangement 
of  Chronosemic  Figure  Symbols,  in  the  order  in  which  the 
figures  stand  in  the  given  number.  In  this  arrangement, 
reckoning  from  the  left,  the  terminal  sign  of  the  first  figure- 
symbol  becomes  the  initial  sign  of  the  second  figure-symbol, 
the  terminal  sign  of  the  second  figure-symbol  becomes  the 
initial  sign  of  the  third  figure-symbol,  and  so  on  through 
the  number. 

"  Hence  a  signal-number  composed  of  two  figures  is  repre- 
sented by  an  arrangement  of  two  intervals  and  three  signs ; 
a  signal-number  of  three  figures  by  three  intervals  and  four 
signs ;  and,  in  general,  any  signal-number  will  be  made  by 
means  of  as  many  intervals  as,  and  one  more  sign  than, 
there  are  figures  in  the  given  number. 

"  For  the  purpose  of  a  detailed  illustration,  suppose  it 
were  required  to  show  the  particular  signal-number  2693, 
by  means  of  Chronosemic  Signals,  the  unit  of  interval  being 
five  seconds.  From  the  preceding  exjilanation  it  is  evident 
that  it  will  be  sufficient  to  make  five  successive  signs,  sepa- 
rated by  the  four  intervals,  10",  30",  45",  and  15",  which 
respectively  characterize  the  figures  2,  6,  9,  3,  of  which  the 
number  is  composed. 

"  As  already  remarked,  and  as  will  be  more  fully  shown 
hereafter,  the  signs  may  be  made  in  many  different  ways. 
If,  however,  for  the  purpose  of  the  present  illustration,  it  is 
supposed  that  the  signs  are  made  by  ships'  guns,  then  the 
signal  of  the  preceding  paragraph  will  require  five  guns  and 
four  intervals,  which  will  be  executed  as  follows : 

Gun— 10"— gun— 30"— gun— 45"— gun— 15"— gun..  2693  ; 
and  the  signal   thus  made  may  be  shown  with  entire  pre- 


MANUAL  OF    SIGNALS.  171 

eision  1>y  him  who  transmits  it,  and  read  with  equal  certainty 
by  him  who  receives  it. 

"The  preceding  example  may  be  represented  graphically 
under  the  following  general  form  : 

S,S6S9S3S 2693; 

in  which  the  sign,  whatever  it  be,  is  represented  by  the 
letter  S,  and  the  interval  is  reduced  to  units  of  interval  by 
dividing  each  interval  by  the  unit  of  interval,  winch  in  this 
particular  case  is  supposed  to  be  5".  The  following  exam- 
ples present  further  graphical  illustrations  of  the  Chronose- 
mic  method  of  symbolizing  signal-numbers  : 

Numbers.  Symbolized. 

50  S6S0S 

407  S4S0S,S 

2693  S9S,S„S,S 

35881  S.SJ3.S.S.S 

"  Unless  otherwise  indicated,  the  code  unit  of  interval  will 
be  five  seconds,  and  the  telegraphic  unit  of  interval  will  be 
three  seconds. 

"  The  signal  interval  is  the  time  which  elapses  between 
the  terminal  sign  of  one  signal-number,  and  the  initial  sign  of 
the  next  succeeding  signal-number.  This  may  be  arbitrary, 
hut  it  should  not  be  less  than  the  lamest  figure  interval  in- 
creased  by  a  unit  of  interval;  and  this  will  be  recognized 
as  the  definite  signal  interval. 

"For  the  code  unit  of  interval,  the  signal  interval  is, 
therefore — 

5"X  9 +  5"  =  50  seconds. 

"And  for  the  telegraphic  unit  of  interval,  the  signal  inter- 
val is — 

3"  X  9  -h  3"  =  30  seconds. 


172 


MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS. 


Auxiliary  or  Special  Signals. 

• 

"  The  elemental  figures  from  0  to  9  inclusive,  when  sepa- 
rately made,  represent  certain  auxiliary  or  special  signals. 
"  These  signals  are  exhibited  in  the  following  table : 

Table  of  special  Signals. 


Figures. 

Symbols. 

Names  of  Signals. 

Interpretations. 

0 

s„s 

Preparatory 

Signal  of  attention  :  Signals  to  be 
made. 

1 

SiS 

Answer  to  call :   Readiness  for 

communication. 

2 

SoS 

Signal  of  assent :   Yes. 

3 

S3S 

Numeral 

Next   signal    to    be    used    as   a 

Number. 

4 

S4S, 
S6S 

Negative 

Signal  of  disseut :  No. 
Telegraphic  Dictionary :   Alpha- 

5 

Teleg.  Alphabet.. . . 

bet  to  be  used. 

(5 

S6S 

Unit  of  interval .... 

Next  signal  to  make  unit  of  in- 
ter cat. 

7 

S7S 

Call  for  strict  attention  to  definite 

signal  interval. 

8 

S8S 

Teleg.  Vocabulary. . 

Telegraphic  Dictionary :  Vocabu- 
lary to  be  used. 

9 

Commercial  Code  . . 

Signals  from  the  Commercial 
Code  to  be  used. 

"The  Preparatory  signal,  being  intended  to  arrest  the  at- 
tention even  of  those  with  whom  preoccupation,  distance,  or 
other  circumstances  may  somewhat  embarrass  signal  com- 
munication, should  be  made  as  decisive  as  the  means  at  hand 
will  warrant,  or  at  least  sufficiently  so  to  be  effective.  To 
this  end — the  figure  to  be  shown  being  zero — the  symbol 
will  be,  in  general,  either  two  guns,  two  rockets,  two  signal- 
trumpet  blasts,  or  two  steam-blasts,  in  quick  succession. 

"  If,  however,  circumstances  should  render  it  inexpedient 
to  fire  guns,  or  send  up  rockets,  the  special  signal  apparatus 
may  be  used,  namely :  the  signal  balloon,  lantern,  or  trum- 


MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS.  17o* 

}><t,  as  made  necessary  or  expedient  by  the  condition  of  the 
weather. 

"In  every  ease  the  Preparatory  will  be  repeated,  either  in 
kind  or  otherwise,  until  the  proper  answer  shall  be  made, 
or  until  reasons  shall  appear  for  not  expecting  an  answer. 

"The  other  special  signals  need  no  additional  explanations. 

Signal  Apparatus. 

"  The  apparatus  necessary  for  Chronosemic  Signals  com- 
prises that  for  measuring  the  intervals,  as  well  as  that  for 
making  the  initial  and  terminal  signs  of  those  intervals. 
Apparatus  for  time-keeping  and  sign-making  is  therefore 
required. 

Time-keeping  Apparatus. 

" The  timekeeper  will  he  any  instrument  adapted  to  the 

distinct  and  easy  measurement  of  seconds  of  time. 

"A  chronometer,  deck-clock,  comparing  watch,  metro- 
nome, sand-glass,  and  seconds'  pendulum,  are  suitable  time- 
keepers, any  one  of  which  may  be  readily  and  accurately 
used  for  observing  figure  intervals. 

11 A  pendulum  maybe  extemporized  in  five  minutes  from 
a  piece  of  twine  and  a  weight,  which,  on  being  suspended 
between  the  thumb  and  forefinger  of  one  hand,  will  give 
seconds'  oscillations,  differing  less  than  one-sixtieth  from 
strict  accuracy — quite  sufficient  for  practical  purposes.  The 
weight  should  be  small  and  the  string  light ;  and  the  dis- 
tance from  the  centre  of  the  weight  to  the  point  of  suspen- 
sion, where  a  knot  may  be  tied  to  mark  it,  should  be  thirty- 
nine  inches.  The  small  error  in  distance  practically  com- 
pensates for  the  small  error  in  taking  the  centre  of  oscilla- 
tion at  the  centre  of  the  weight. 


174  MANUAL  OF   SIGNALS. 


Special  Timekeeper  for  Chronosemic  Signals. 

"  The  Signal  Chronoscope  is  specially  designed  for  the 
correct  and  ready  observation  of  figure  intervals  in  making 
and  receiving  Chronosemic  Signals. 

"  The  Chronoscope  consists  of  a  clock  movement,  with  a 
bell-striker  and  register.  In  the  top  of  the  case  containing 
the  movement  there  are  fixed  two  dials,  over  one  of  which 
moves  an  index  for  indicating  seconds  of  time,  and  over  the 
other  an  index  for  registering  units  of  interval.  There  is 
an  adjustment  by  means  of  which  the  bell-striker  and  regis- 
ter may  be  set  to  the  particular  unit  of  interval  desired, 
as  3",  5",  or  10",  for  a  given  occasion.  There  is  also  a 
stop-detent,  by  which  a  quiescent  state  is  maintained  in  the 
instrument,  except  when  actually  measuring  figure  inter- 
vals. 

"  To  use  the  Chronoscope,  it  is  wound  up.  The  bell- 
striker  and  register  are  set  to  the  desired  unit  of  interval, 
and  the  indexes  set  to  zero  on  the  respective  dials.  The 
instrument  may  be  supported  on  a  table,  or  gimbal,  but  is 
most  conveniently  held  in  front  of  the  body  by  a  strap  over 
the  shoulder.  At  the  moment  it  is  desired  to  measure  an 
interval,  pressure  is  made  on  the  knob  which  opens  the  stop- 
detent,  upon  which  the  second  index  and  the  register  index 
begin  to  move.  At  the  end  of  each  successive  unit  of  inter- 
val a  bell-stroke  will  be  made,  and  the  index  of  the  register 
advanced  a  corresponding  space.  At  the  close  of  each  in- 
terval the  stop-detent  will  be  released,  upon  which  all  action 
ceases ;  and  the  count  of  the  units  in  an  interval  is  verified 
by  inspection  of  the  register. 

Sign-making  Apparatus. 

"  The  sign-making  apparatits  is  required  to  be  adapted  to 
two  essentially  different  atmospheric  conditions,  namely: 


MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS.  175 

open  weather,  and  mist  or  fog.  In  the  former  case,  the  signs 
may  be  addressed  either  to  the  eye  or  ear.  In  the  latter, 
those  addressed  to  the  ear  alone  can  be  used. 

Signs  Adapted  to  Open  Weather. 

"As  already  remarked,  such  signs  may  be  addressed  to 
the  eye  or  ear;  that  is,  they  may  be  sight-signs  or  sound- 
signs.  The  latter  will  be  explained  in  describing  the  signs 
adapted  to  a  state  of  Ion;.  Signs  addressed  to  the  eve 
comprise : 

"First.  Signs  employed  during  the  day.  For  these  it 
will  be  sufficient  to  hoist  and  lower  a  flag,  ball,  or  any  other 
conspicuous  object;  to  expose  and  mask  a  ball  or  similar 
object ;  to  expand  and  collapse  a  ball  or  balloon. 

"Secondly.  Signs  employed  during  the  night.  For  these 
it  will  be  sufficient  to  fire  rockets,  candle-bombs,  or  gun- 
powder in  flashes ;  to  hoist  and  lower  a  lantern  or  torch  ; 
to  expose  and  mask  a  lantern,  torch,  or  any  other  light ;  to 
make  flashes  of  electric  light;  to  show,  and  intermit,  or 
mask  an  oxy-hydrogen,  magnesium,  or  calcium  light,  etc. 

Signs  Adapted  to  Mist  or  Fog. 

"Such  signs  can  only  be  addressed  to  the  ear,  whether 
made  during  day  or  night.  These  may  be  made  by  the  use 
of  ships1  guns,  steam-whistles,  high-pressure  steam  or  air 
trumpets,  fog-horns,  volleys  of  musketry,  the  roll  of  drums, 
trumpet  or  bugle  calls,  etc. 

Special  Sign-making  Apparatus. 

"  Although  the  means  commonly  at  hand  would  generally 
suffice  for  efficient  signs,  still  the  following  special  forms  of 
sign-making  apparatus  will  supply  effective,  convenient, 
and  economical  means  of  conducting  signal  operations  on 
ordinary  occasions.     These  art',  for  Chronosemic  Signals — 


176  MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS. 

"  1.    The  signal-balloon,  for  day  use  / 

"2.   The  signal-lantern,  for  night  use  ;  and, 

"  3.   The  signal-trumpet,  for  fog  use. 

"  In  all  cases,  whatever  be  the  particular  mode  of  making 
the  signs  used  in  Chronosemic  Signals,  they  should  be 
prompt  to  time  and  decided  in  action.  The  actual  duration 
of  show  of  a  sign  may  be  arbitrary.  It  may  be  momentary, 
and  at  the  same  time  efficient,  with  such  signs  as  the  boom 
of  a  cannon,  a  flash  of  burning  gunpowder  or  of  the  electric 
light,  and  the  illuminated  path  of  a  rocket  or  a  bomb ;  or 
it  may  be  prolonged,  more  or  less,  as  circumstances  may 
suggest,  when  using  any  of  the  modes  of  sign-making  which 
admit  of  continuous  sights  or  sounds.  But  the  initial  and 
terminal  limits  of  the  figure  interval  interposed  between 
two  signs,  however  made,  should  admit  of  being  observed 
with  all  practicable  precision.  This  only  requires  that  the 
transition  from  show  to  mask,  or  from  mask  to  show,  if  a 
sign,  be  made  with  reasonable  celerity,  and  noted  with  cor- 
responding precision  by  the  time-officer.  In  the  firing  of 
rockets,  which  is  one  of  the  most  convenient  modes  of  sign- 
making  for  Chronosemic  Signals,  where  a  great  extension 
of  the  signal-distance  may  be  desired,  the  apparent  moment 
of  explosion  of  the  rockets  may  be  taken  as  the  epoch  of  the 
intervals,  both  in  making  and  receiving  signals. 

"  Nevertheless,  while  the  remarks  of  the  preceding  para- 
graph suggest  a  care  which  should  always  be  observed  in 
conducting  operations  so  important  as  the  correct  trasmis- 
sion  and  reliable  reception  of  signal  communications  between 
distant  points,  it  will  be  observed  that  an  error,  even  of  a 
second,  or  twTo  seconds,  when  the  unit  of  interval  is  five 
seconds  or  more,  would  occasion  no  uncertainty;  and  with 
the  use  of  the  Chronoscope  the  utmost  precision  and  cer- 
tainty are  attainable,  even  with  the  smallest  unit  of  interval, 
both  in  transmitting  and  receiving  signals. 


MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS. 


177 


FORMS   OF  SIGNAL  RECORDS   FOR   CIIRONO- 
SEMIC  SIGNALS. 


SIGNAL    RECOHD. 


Signals  made  by 


Date. 
A  D. 

Time. 

Interval. 

Signal 
number. 

Remarks. 

h.    m.  I  s. 

1 

2 

3 

t 

4 

* 

Signed, 

SIGNAL    RECORD. 

Signals  received  from ■ , 


Date. 
A  D. 

Time. 

Interval. 

Signal 
number. 

Remarks. 

h.    m.    8. 

1 

2 

3 

4 

Signed, 

178  MANUAL  OF   SIGNALS. 

To  convey  letters  or  words  by  Chronosemic  Signals,  an 
alphabet  may  be  assumed  in  which  each  letter  is  indicated 
by  two  figures  only ;  as  is  the  case  with  the  Homograph ic 
Alphabet  of  the  General  Service  Code.  To  designate,  then, 
any  letter,  but  three  signs  or  reports  will  be  needed.  Thus 
to  indicate  A, "  one — one"  or  "  11,"  the  initial  period  of  time 
being  three  seconds,  the  signalcwould  be  written  "  St  S}  S ;" 
to  indicate  "R"  or  "34,"  the  signal  would  be  written  "S3 
S4  S ;"  to  indicate  "  E"  or  "  5 1,"  the  signal  would  be  "  S6  S, 
S."  The  three  letters  ARE  would  be  thus  distinctly 
designated.  A  definite  signal  interval  may  be  allowed  after 
each  letter.  With  due  care,  however,  the  completed  signals 
to  indicate  whole  words  may  be  given  together — as  thus : 
the  word  "  A  R  E"  may  be  written  and  signalized  as  fol- 
lows: St  Sj  S3  S4  S6  S,  S."  Now,  having  this  record  of  a 
signal  received,  and  knowing  there  are  for  each  letter  two 
figures,  and  only  two,  we  have,  by  pointing  off  the  signal- 
figures  by  twos,  the  numbers  of  the  signal-letters.  In  illus- 
tration, "SA  S3S4  S6S,  S"="  11,  34,  51"="  A,  R,  E." 

In  this  case,  the  signal  interval  may  be  used  to  indicate 
completed  words,  the  signal  interval  doubled  to  indicate 
completed  sentences.  A  Signal  Code  and  Telegraphic  Dic- 
tionary, common  to  the  Army  and  Navy,  being  then  adopt- 
ed, it  is  difficult  to  conceive  of  the  circumstances  which 
would  prevent  the  co-operation  of  the  forces  when  within 
any  range  at  which  sense  can  be  acted  on.  For  the  army, 
the  plans  of  Chronosemic-Signals  offer  many  advantages : 
as  when  it  may  be  necessary  to  convey  a  few  preconcerted 
messages  over  long  lines  of  communication,  as  from  peak 
to  peak,  over  many  miles  of  hilly  country.  Corps  of  divi- 
sions, operating  anywhere  within  range,  by  day  or  night, 
may  report  their  arrival  at  fixed  positions;  and  many  facts 
important  to  be  instantly  made  known  may  be  trans- 
mitted. 

The    simple   yet  very  powerful    appliances   the  Chrono- 


MANUAL   OF  SIGNALS.  179 

semic  code  permits  to  be  used,  will  make  it  often  available. 
Signalists  will  comprehend  how  tires,  lighted  from  station  to 
station,  and  hidden  or  eclipsed  as  by  a  blanket,  may  be  so 
flashed  to  signal  any  numeral,  and  so  any  message.  Equally, 
the  tires  being  allowed  to  show  steadily,  the  sharp  short 
eclipses  that  may  be  made  with  a  blanket  or  other  screen 
may  be  used  as  signs  to  mark  off  the  intervals.  The  Chro- 
nosemic  method  affords  the  mode  by  which  rockets  and 
candle-bombs  can  be  used  to  the  best  advantage  for  signal- 
ling; these  are  among  the  most  powerful  of  night  signals. 
So,  heavy  bells  and  guns  can  be  effectively  used  at  great  dis- 
tances, or  cartridge  puffs,  showing  dense  clouds  of  smoke 
by  day,  or  powder  flashes  visible  at  great  distances  at  night. 
The  extemporized  pendulum  for  counting  seconds,  already 
described,  can  be  put  in  use  anywhere.  There  is  no  plan 
more  available  for  concealed  signals,  or  those  to  be  sent 
from  within  the  enemy's  lines.  A  window  illuminated  by 
a  single  light,  placed  anywhere  within  the  room,  and  at 
proper  times  eclipsed,  will  serve  to  transmit  any  agreed 
message.  Or  any  light  may  be  flashed,  or  indication  made 
in  the  numerous  ways  before  sus^ested. 

The  plans  for  Chronosemic  Signals  should  be  made  the 
subjects  of  careful  study,  and  their  practical  use  made  a  part 
of  the  instruction  of  every  signalist.  The  opportunities  for 
their  successful  employment  cannot  fail  to  present  them- 
selves. 


180  MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS. 

TO  OPEN  COMMUNICATION   BY  SIGNALS 
WITHOUT  A  PRECONCERTED  CODE. 

Two  parties  instructed  in  the  principles  and  practice  of 
signalling  being  in  view,  and  attention  called,  find  them- 
selves  unable  to  communicate,  neither  understanding  the 
especial  code  used  by  the  other: 

To  Arrange  a  Code. — The  first  party,  taking  position, 
swings  the  flag  in  circles  from  left  to  right,  passing  it  verti- 
cally above  the  head  in  each  swing,  six  times.  Signalling 
thus  :  "  Prepare  to  arrange  code." 

To  this  the  second  party  replies  by  six  similar  swings. 
Both  flags  are  then  lowered  while  preparation  is  made. 
The  first  party  writes  carefully  an  alphabet-code  of  two 
elements  (a  code  of  two  elements  is  chosen  for  illustration), 
taking  care  that  each  letter  is  represented  by  a  distinct  com- 
bination, that  no  two  letter  combinations  are  alike,  and  that 
the  letters  follow  each  other  in  their  usual  sequence  in  the 
alphabet,  "A,  B,  C,  etc.,  to  Z."  The  second  party  makes 
ready  to  write  down  the  signal  combinations  he  is  about  to 
receive. 

Each  party  having  completed  these  preparations,  assumes 
with  his  flag  the  position  "  Ready."  It  is  thus  known  that 
both  are  "  Ready  to  form  code." 

The  first  party  now  makes  six  times  the  signal  "  one" — 
a  pause  of  three  seconds.  Then  makes  six  times  the  signal 
"  two" — a  pause  of  three  seconds.  Then  makes  three  times 
the  signal  "three,"  and  lowers  the  flag.  This  shows  that 
the  code  will  be  one  of  two  elements,  what  motions  of  the  flag 
will  indicate  each  element,  and  what  will  be  the  pause-signal. 

The  second  party  now  repeats  these  signals  exactly  as 
they  are  made,  and  so  indicates:  "  Preparatory  signals  of 
elements  seen  and  understood."     He  then  rests. 

The  first  party  then   makes    slowly  and    distinctly  the 


MANUAL  OF   SIGNALS.  181 

letter-signals  of  his  just-written  code,  each  letter  following 
the  other  in  the  usual  sequence  of  the  letters  of  the  alpha- 
bet, and  a  pause  being  made  alter  each  Letter-signal  to  per- 
mit it  to  be  recorded  by  the  second  party.  At  the  end  of 
the  alphabet  he  makes  three  "pause-signals"  "333,"  and 
lowers  the  flag. 

The  second  party,  who  has  carefully  written  down  the 
letter-signals  as  he  has  seen  them  made,  now  critically  ex- 
amines his  list  to  see  if  all  is  correct ;  and  if  so,  makes 
"  22 — 22 — 22 — 3,"  and  repeats  slowly,  distinctly,  with  a  pause 
after  each  letter-signal  and  in  their  sequence,  the  letters  he 
has  received,  checking  each  on  Ins  list  as  he  transmits  it. 
At  the  end  of  the  alphabet  he  makes  "  33"  and  rests. 

The  first  party  compares  these  signals,  as  he  receives 
them,  with  his  alphabet  list,  checking  each  as  it  is  compared, 
and  if  all  are  correct,  makes  "  22—22—22—3." 

Each  party  is  now  in  possession  of  a  complete  alphabet, 
and  the  exchange  of  messages  proceeds  under  the  usual 
rules. 

If,  during  the  exchange  of  alphabets,  there  is  an  error  or  a 
signal  not  clearly  seen,  the  receiver  makes  at  once  a  "stop 
signal"  by  waving  his  flag  from  side  to  side.  The  signal 
seen,  the  sender  signals  "22—22—22—3,"  and  commencing 
anew  with  the  letter  preceding  that  on  which  the  error  has 
been  made,  repeats  these  signal-letters  and  goes  on  with  the 
alphabet. 

Bv  similar  rules  may  be  arranged  signal-alphabets  of  any 
number  of  elements,  or  for  any  apparatus. 

Homographic  Codes  of  any  number  of  elements  may  be 
arranged  as  follows  : 

The  first  party's  attention  being  called,  and  the  alphabets 
prepared,  each  makes,  with  the  arm  and  disk,  six  times  the 
motion-signals  "one,"  "two,"  "three,"  "four,"  or  "live," 
etc.,  for  whatever  number  of  elements  he  proposes  to  use  in 


182  MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS. 

his  code  to  be  prepared.  He  then  makes,  three  times,  the 
signal  which  is  to  be  the  pause-signal.  Thus,  if  he  pro- 
poses an  alphabet  of  four  elements,  he  makes  motion  "  one" 
six  times,  then  "  two"  six  times,  then  "  three"  six  times, 
then  "  four"  six  times.  He  then  makes  three  times  his 
pause-signal. 

For  the  General  Service  Homographic  Code  he  would 
make  motion  "  one"  six  times,  then  motion  "  two"  six  times, 
then  motion  "three"  six  times,  then  motion  "four"  six 
times,  then  motion  "  five"  six  times,  then  motion  "  six"  six 
times,  then  "  Code  three"  "  3"  times. 

These  are  repeated  by  the  second  party  precisely  as  they 
have  been  made,  to  show  that  they  have  been  seen  and  are 
understood.  The  alphabet  of  homographic  signals  is  then 
transmitted  with  the  same  precautions  as  prescribed  for  the 
code  of  two  elements,  each  letter-signal  carefully  formed  by 
itself,  and  each  precisely  recorded  and  repeated  back  as  in 
the  instance  given.  Each  party  becomes  thus  possessed  of 
the  same  alphabet,  and  messages  are  then  transmitted  by 
homographic  signals  and  with  the  ordinary  rules. 

The  rules  for  the  preparation  of  codes  of  day  signals 
without  preconcert,  apply  equally  well  when  it  is  necessary 
to  concert  signal  codes  at  nio-ht — night-signals  beino-  then 
substituted  for  day-signals. 

It  will  be  easy  for  skilled  signalists  to  thus  open  commu- 
nication either  by  day  or  night,  they  needing  no  preconcert. 
It  is  only  necessary  that  they  be  in  sight  of  each  other. 
The  power  so  to  do  might  be  of  value  in  the  case  of  be- 
leaguered forts  or  blockaded  vessels,  or  when  emergencies 
have  long  separated  signalists  who,  though  they  may  have 
no  alphabet  in  common,  may  know  that  each  has  been  in- 
structed in  the  same  rules.  The  practice  of  such  communi- 
cation without  preconcert  ought  to  be  made  a  part  of  mili- 
tary tuition.     So  much  may  depend  upon  this  power,  and 


MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS.  1S:» 

it  should  be  so  assuredly  possessed  by  every  sigualist,  that 
a  description  at  length  is  here  given. 

There  are  two  supposable  cases  : 

1st.  Two  signalists  being  within  signal-distance,  are  each 
aware  that  both  are  practised  in  certain  common  alphabetic 
codes  of  different  numbers  of  elements,  but  there  is  no  pre- 
concert by  what  order  of  code  or  by  what  especial  signals 
the  communication  shall  be. 

It  is  supposed,  for  illustration,  that  it  is  desired  to  indicate 
that  a  code  of  two  elements  will  be  used,  and  to  exhibit  the 
signs  to  stand  for  the  two  symbols. 

One  party,  having  attracted  the  attention  of  the  other,  as 
by  waving  his  handkerchief,  or  his  arms,  or  a  flag  continu- 
ally, or  by  running  continually  to  the  right  or  left  of  a 
fixed  position,  or  by  making  continuously  any  signal,  sees, 
by  an  answering  signal,  that  he  is  noticed.  The  answering 
signal  is  made,  by  the  second  party,  by  repeating  some  sign 
in  couplets,  as  by  waving  the  handkerchief  twice  to  the  left 
at  a  time,  for  a  number  of  times,  or  by  making  short  runs, 
two  at  a  time,  to  the  left  of  any  fixed  position,  or  by  any 
sign ;  only  it  must  be  repeated  twice  at  a  time,  with  a  pause 
between  each  repetition.  These  double  signals  are  always 
signals  of  recognition.  The  first  party  seeing  the  answer, 
acknowledges  it  by  making  signs  of  some  kind  "  by  twos." 
He  then  makes,  slowly  and  very  distinctly,  six  times,  the 
signal,  whatever  it  may  be,  he  wishes  to  have  read  as  "  one," 
or  the  first  element,  and  stands  at  rest.  This  is  carefully 
noted  by  the  second  party,  as  the  signal  he  is  to  read  as 
"  one,"  or  the  first  element.  The  first  party  then  makes, 
slowly  and  distinctly,  six  times,  the  signal  he  wishes  read 
as  "two,"  or  the  second  element,  and  again  pauses  and 
stands  at  rest.  This  is  noted  by  the  second  party,  as  be- 
fore, to  be  read  as  "  two,"  or  the  second  element.  The  Bret 
party  now  makes,  three  times,  the  signal  he  intends  to  use 
for  the  "  pause-signal,"  or  end  of  a  word,  and  stops.     It  will 


184  MANUAL  OF   SIGNALS. 

be  seen,  that  two  elements  and  a  pause-signal  have  been 
indicated.  These  are  sufficient  with  which  to  construct  a 
code.  The  second  party,  having  distinctly  seen  and  noted 
the  sio-nals  made,  now  makes  the  sis;nal  of  recognition  as 
before,  then  pauses  and  stands  at  rest ;  then  makes,  in  his 
turn,  six  times,  the  signal  he  intends  to  use  as  "  one,"  or 
first  element — then  pauses ;  then  makes,  six  times,  the  sig- 
nal he  intends  to  use  as  "two,"  or  second  element — then 
pauses ;  then  makes,  three  times,  the  signal  he  intends  shall 
be  his  pause-signal.  If  possible,  the  signals  made  by  the 
second  party  must  be,  for  each  symbol,  similar  to  those 
used  by  the  first  party.  When  this  is  not  possible,  any 
other  signals  may  be  used.  The  more  simple  and  distinct 
the  signals  the  better. 

Each  party  now  knows  the  number  of  elements  the  other 
party  proposes  to  use,  the  elementary  signals  by  which  he 
proposes  to  indicate  those  elements,  and  the  pause-signal. 

It  has  been  indicated  that  the  communication  will  be  by  a 
code  of  two  elements,  and  the  signs,  to  stand  for  the  two 
elements,  have  been  exhibited.  The  parties  can  now  con- 
verse in  an  alphabetic  code  of  two  elements,  mutually  known 
to  them,  using  these  exhibited  symbols,  in  their  proper 
places,  for  the  elements  of  that  code. 

The  procedure  to  indicate  the  use  of  codes  of  three,  four, 
five,  six,  or  other  number  of  elements,  and  to  exhibit  the 
symbols  to  be  shown  in  each  case,  would  be  similar,  except 
that  there  would  be  three  signs  exhibited,  each  six  times,  be- 
fore the  pause-signal,  to  indicate  a  code  of  three  elements ;  four 
sio;ns  so  exhibited  to  indicate  a  code  of  four  elements ;  five 
signs  so  exhibited  to  indicate  a  code  of  five  elements;  and  so 
for  whatever  code. 

2d.  Two  signalists,  circumstanced  as  first  above  described, 
have  no  knowledge  of  any  agreed  alphabetic  code.  Each, 
however,  is  known  to  the  other  to  have  been  instructed  in 
the  principles  of  signalling. 


MANUAL   OF    SIGNALS.  L85 

TheD  to  devise  ;i  code  these  further  rules  are  used: 
The  first  party  shows  a  signal  alphabet ;  that  is,  he  makes 
slowly,  with  pauses  between  them,  any  twenty-six  different 
combinations  of   the  two  signal-symbols    he   has    shown. 
These  combinations  are  to  stand  for  the  twenty-six  Letters  of 
the  alphabet. 

If  the  combinations  are  to  be  of  motion-signals,  the  motions 
for  each  letter  must  follow  each  other  without  perceptible 
pause  between  them  until  the  combination  for  that  letter  is 
complete:  there  must  then  be  a  pause  of  time  to  show  that  the 
letter  is  finished.  If  the  combinations  are  to  be  of  stationary 
signals,  each  letter  combination  must  be  indicate  1  as  com- 
pleted by  making-  the  pause-signal  before  commencing  the 
next  letter.  Time  must,  in  any  case,  be  allowed  after  each  let- 
ter, to  permit  it  to  be  noted  by  the  observer.  The,  second 
party  notes  down  these  twenty-six  letter  combinations,  one  by 
one  with  his  pencil,  each  in  the  order  in  which  it  is  made,  writ- 
ing for  each  element-signal  shown  its  proper  number,  as  the 
twenty-six  letters  of  the  alphabet  follow  each  in  their  usual 
sequence.  So  the  record  might  stand  thus:  "A  is  21,"  "  l'> 
is  22,"  "  C  is  12  ;"  and  so  on,  to  the  letter  Z.  If  the  receiver 
doubts  the  signal  for  any  letter,  he  makes  the  signal  for  the 
sender  to  stop,  and  then  makes,  with  his  own  signals,  as  they 
have  been  before  agreed  upon,  the  element-numbers  of  the 
letter  correctly  received.  The  sender  now  commences  again 
with  this  last  letter,  and  repeats  that  of  which  there  has 
been  doubt.  The  first  party  having  thus  sent  the  whole 
alphabet  which  it  is  his  intention  to  use,  makes  the  signal 
for  completed  message;  that  is,  three  pause-signals  together, 
and  awaits  the  reply.  The  second  party,  having  clearly 
seen  and  correctly  noted,  in  figures,  each  letter-signal  of  this 
alphabet,  now  makes  the  recognition  signal,  to  indicate  that 
he  has  understood  it;  and  then,  in  his  turn,  using  his  own 
signals — the  sitrns  he  has  exhibited  as  those  he  will  use  for 
"one,"  and  "two" — he  makes  the  twenty-six  combinations 


186  MANUAL  OF   SIGNALS. 

he  has  received,  and  in  the  same  order  he  has  received 
and  noted  them  ;  that  is,  in  the  usual  order  of  sequence 
of  the  letters  of  the  alphabet.  He  closes  with  the  sig- 
nal for  completed  message.  To  this,  the  first  party  re- 
plies with  the  signal  for  "signal  seen  and  understood," 
and  the  word  "  correct."  The  second  party,  noting  this 
message,  replies  with  the  signals  for  "  signals  seen  and 
understood,"  and  the  word  "  correct."  The  parties  have 
now  exchanged  the  alphabet,  and  have  verified  it.  If, 
however,  any  letters  are  incorrect  as  returned,  the  first 
party  signals  after  the  alphabet  is  received,  "  error,"  then 
the  letter  preceding  the  fault,  the  faulty  letter  or  let- 
ters, correcting  them  and  the  succeeding  letter,  then. 
"33"  and  pause.  The  second  party  acknowledges  and 
repeats  such  correction  in  this  pause.  If  there  are  many 
errors,  the  whole  alphabet  is  repeated  and  returned. 
When  at  last  correct,  it  is  verified  by  the  word  "cor- 
rect," as  above.  Messages  of  any  kind  can  now  be  trans- 
mitted. 

It  will  be  comprehended  that  any  kinds  of  signs  or  indi- 
cations can  be  exhibited  for  the  symbols,  and  that  the  sig- 
nalists,  though  corresponding  by  the  same  alphabetic  code, 
may  represent  the  letters  by  signals  which  seem  to  have  no 
resemblance.  For  instance,  the  first  party  may  have  chosen 
to  indicate  the  "one"  and  "two"  by  the  waves  of  a  flag; 
while  the  second  party  has  chosen  to  signify  the  same 
symbols  by  any  two  positions  of  a  disk.  The  pause-signal 
is  equally  arbitrary. 

Alphabetic  codes,  of  any  number  of  elements,  may  be 
formed  whenever  skilled  signalists  are  visible  to  each  other, 
by  processes  similar  to  the  one  described.  These  being  the 
rules  :  that  whatever  signal  is  made  continually,  an  indefi- 
nite number  of  times,  is  a  signal  for  attention ;  whatever 
signal  is  made  "  by  twos,"  is  a  signal  of  recognition  or  assent. 
So  long  as  the  signalist  makes  each  signal  six  times,  he  is 


MANUAL  OF   SIGNALS.  187 

indicating  the  elementary  signals  he  intends  to  use;  and 
these  elementary  signals  are  designated  by  the  observer  as 
the  first,  second,  third,  fourth,  and  so  on,  elements,  accord- 
ing to  the  order  of  the  sequence  in  which  they  are  exhibited, 
one  after  the  other.  The  alphabets  are  then  devised,  to 
consist  of  two,  three,  four,  <>r  more  elements,  as  the  case 
maybe.  The  pause-signal  alone  is  made  three  times ;  and 
when  made,  it  indicates  that  all  the  elementary  signals,  to 
he  used  in  the  alphabet  it  is  proposed  to  devise,  have  been 
shown.  Thus,  if  two  different  signals  are  shown,  each  six 
times,  and  are  followed  by  a  pause-signal,  made  thrice,  it  is 
indicated  that  the  alphabet  to  follow  will  be  of  two  elements. 
If  three  distinct  signals  are  shown,  each  six  times,  and  are 
followed  by  a  pause-signal,  made  thrice,  the  alphabet  is  to 
be  of  three  elements.  If  four  distinct  signals  are  made,  each 
six  times,  and  are  followed  by  a  pause-signal,  made  thrice, 
the  alphabet  is  to  be  of  four  elements;  and  thus  for  any 
number  of  elements. 

Codes  can  be  arranged  in  the  same  way,  without  precon- 
cert, for  the  numeral  characters.  Communication  without 
preconcert,  or  a  previously  established  code,  may  be  had 
over  an  electric  wire  as  follows:  For  a  preparatory  signal, 
strike  nine  dots;  the  answer,  "  signal  understood  and  ready 
to  form  a  code,"  is  to  return  nine  dots.  The  twenty-six  let- 
ters are  then  sent  in  their  usual  sequence  by  signals  of  any 
code;  and  these  are  noted  down  at  the  receiving  station. 
The  letters  are  then  returned  to  the  sending  station  pre- 
cisely as  they  have  been  received.  The  sending  station 
sends  the  word  "  correct,"  which  is  returned  "correct,"  and 
both  stations  are  ready  to  receive  or  transmit  by  any  re- 
cording instrument. 

The  plans  for  Chronosemic  Signals  require  no  preconcert 
other  than  to  determine  the  initial  interval. 

The  power  of  extemporizing  alphabetic  codes  of  visible 
signals,  of  any  order,  and  with  any  kind  of  signals,  without 


188  MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS. 

preconcert,  other  than  a  knowledge  of  general  rules,  and 
the  possibility  of  so  opening,  at  any  time,  anywhere,  tele- 
graphic communication  between  persons  who  may  never 
have  met,  and  may  never  meet  more  nearly  than  they  are 
when  thus  conversing  by  signals,  may  be  of  use  in  very 
many  contingencies  of  the  service.  For  military  uses,  it 
has  this  advantage :  that,  if  the  parties  are  in  sight  of  each 
other  and  at  liberty,  and  can  be  protected,  no  human  power 
can  prevent  their  communication.  It  is  available  for  be- 
leaguered forts  or  cities,  or  vessels  in  distress,  when  com- 
munication cannot  be  had  by  boats ;  and  between  any  per- 
sons who,  for  duty  or  for  pleasure,  may  wish  to  communi- 
cate at  a  long  distance.  Of  course,  it  can  be  used  with  any 
apparatus,  or  any  mode  of  making  signals,  which  has  been 
described,  or  is  conceivable.  It  can  be  used  with  day  or 
with  night  signals,  or  with  signals  by  sound. 

The  signalist,  once  well  taught,  becomes  thereafter  inde- 
pendent of  signal-books,  or  codes,  or  especial  apparatus ; 
and,  in  a  life  of  active  service,  may  never  encounter  instances 
in  which  he  can  fail  to  open  communication  with  one  simi- 
larly taught,  if  both  are  in  signal-distance,  giving  attention, 
and  provided  with  the  means  for  operation. 

With  these  rules  known,  the  Alphabet  and  the  Dictionary 
of  any  language  given,  messages  may  be  sent,  and  those 
may  converse  whose  different  nationalities  would  render 
conversation,  by  speech,  impossible.  In  this  case,  each  sig- 
nalist signals  to  his  correspondent,  by  the  rules  just  given, 
in  the  alphabet  of  that  correspondent's  language. 

The  signal-alphabets  once  agreed-  upon,  each  signalist 
finds,  in  the  signals  seen  by  him,  and  standing  for  letters 
and  words,  the  letters  and  phrases  of  his  own  language ; 
and  when  he  signals  in  return,  he  makes,  with  his  signals, 
the  letters  and  the  words  of  the  language  of  his  correspond- 
ent. An  American,  in  distress,  might  thus  signal  intelligi- 
ble messages  on  the  coast  of  Russia,  or  France,  to  the  na- 


Scale  I  ft  To  i  iu 
Fig.  2 


PLATE  XIX. 

Fig.  1 


Scale  1   ft  to  lin 


Scale  1  ft  to  ^isin 


rig.  9. 


an 


MANUAL  OF  SIGNALS.  189 

tives  of  those  countries.  Or  signalists  of  different  nations, 
eomingin  siarht  of  each  other,  might  converse,  understand- 
ingly,  miles  apart,  by  messages  thus  written  in  the  air  for 
to  signal  by  aerial  signals  is  virtually  to  write  Letters  in  the 
air — when  neither  of  them  would  he  able  to  comprehend 
the  spoken  pronunciation  of  the  words  that  had  been  thus 
transmitted.  The  dream  of  a  universal  language  is,  per- 
haps, as  nearly  realized  by  these  simple  devices  as  in  any 
way  hitherto  suggested.  The  tongues,  not  the  eyes,  were 
confounded  at  the  tower  of  Babel. 

In  the  studies  of  a  military  education,  the  most  thorough 
practice,  in  the  modes  of  thus  communicating  without  pre- 
concert, ought  to  be  insisted  on. 


DESCRIPTION    OF  STANDARD    SIGNAL    EQUIP- 
MENTS. 

A  Regulation  Set  of  Signal  Equipments,  when  packed 
complete,  is  comprised  in  three  pieces  : 

The  Kit — or  canvas  signal-case,  containing  the  signal- 
staff,  flags,  torch-case,  torches,  and  wormer.  These  all  com- 
pactly rolled  together  and  bound  by  straps,  as  at  Fig.  1, 
Plate  XIX. 

The  Canteen — made  of  copper,  with  one  seam,  and  sol- 
dered— capable  of  containing  one  half-gallon  of  turpentine 
or  other  burning-fluid.      (Fig.  6.) 

The  Haversack — in  which  are  packed  wicking,  matches, 
shears  and  pliers  for  trimming  torch,  a  small  funnel  for  filling 
the  torch,  and  the  two  flame-shades,  etc.     (Fig.  4.) 

The  Kit  Case,  Canteen,  and  Haversack  are  fitted  with 
shoulder-slings  or  straps,  by  wmich  they  may  he  easily  car- 
ried. 

The  Service  Can — is  a  strong  copper  can,  with  rolled 
scams  hard-soldered.     The  nozzle  is  fitted  with  a  screw-cap, 


190  MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS. 

to  prevent  leakage.     It  is  capable  of  containing  five  gallons 
of  burning-fluid.      (Fig.  5.) 

The  Kit  Case  contains : 

1st.  The  signal-staff — a  staff  of  hickory,  made  in  four 
joints  or  pieces,  each  4  ft.  long,  and  tapering  as  a  whole 
from  1^-in.  at  the  butt  to  £in.  at  the  tip. 

The  joints  are  feruled  at  the  ends  with  brass,  and  fitted 
to  be  jointed  together  as  some  fishing-rods  are  jointed.  The 
third  joint  is  guarded  with  brass  for  six  inches  at  its  upper 
extremity,  to  protect  it  from  the  flames  of  the  torch,  which 
is  always  attached  to  this  joint. 

The  tip  or  fourth  joint  is  that  to  which  the  flag  is  attached 
for  day-signals.  When  in  use,  two  or  more  joints  of  staff 
are  fitted  together.     (Fig.  2.) 

2d.  The  Signal  Flags — made  of  muslin,  linen,  or  some 
other  very  light  and  close  fabric.  The  flags  are  seven  in 
number. 

1.  The  six-foot 'white — six  feet  square,  white,  having  at 
its  centre  a  block  or  square  of  red,  two  feet  square. 

2.  The  six-foot  black — six  feet  square,  black,  having  at 
its  centre  a  block  or  square  of  white,  tAvo  feet  square. 

3.  The  four- foot  white — four  feet  square,  white,  having 
at  its  centime  a  block,  red,  sixteen  inches  square. 

4.  The  four-foot  black — four  feet  square,  black,  having  at 
centre  a  block,  white,  sixteen  inches  square. 

5.  The  four-foot  red — four  feet  square,  red,  having  at  cen- 
tre a  block,  white,  sixteen  inches  square. 

6.  The  two-foot  white — two  feet  square,  white,  having  at 
centre  a  block  of  red,  eight  inches  square. 

7.  The  two-foot  red — two  feet  square,  red,  having  at  its 
centre  a  block  of  white,  eight  inches  square. 

All  of  these  flags  are  fitted  with  tapes  or  ties,  by  which 
to  tie  them  to  the  staff.  This  is  found  the  most  simple  and 
the  best  mode  of  attaching.     Two  tapes,  six  inches  long, 


U  \XUAL   OF   SIGNALS.  191 

and  sewed  together  at  the  tie-edge  of  the  flag,  make  a  tie. 
The  ties  are  one  foot  apart.     (Fig.  9.) 

3d.  Torch  Case  and  Torches. 

The  Torch  Case  is  a  piece  of  rubber  cloth  about  three 
feet  long  by  two  feet  six  inches  broad,  fitted  on  one  side 
with  pouches,  in  which  the  torches  are  inserted. 

At  the  opposite  edge  are  ties.  The  torches  are  packed 
by  being  placed  in  the  pouches,  with  the  case  then  rolled 
around  them  so  as  to  envelop  them  in  two  or  three  folds  of 
cloth.     The  ties  retain  the  package  in  this  form.     (Fig.  3.) 

The  Flying  Torch — is  a  copper  cylinder,  eighteen  indies 
long  and  one  and  one-half  inch  in  diameter;  it  is  closed  at 
one  end,  with  the  exception  of  a  nozzle,  through  which  it 
can  be  filled,  and  which  closes  with  a  screw-cap;  it  is  open 
at  the  wick  end,  and  on  its  sides,  at  this  end,  are  four  finest  ra 
or  openings,  one  inch  long,  half  an  inch  broad,  which  open 
into  the  wick,  so  providing  that  however  the  flame  may 
be  driven  by  the  wind,  it  will  find  a  portion  of  the  wick 
exposed.     (Fig.  7.) 

The  Foot  Torch — is  a  copper  cylinder,  eighteen  inches 
long  and  two  inches  in  diameter.  It  is  similar  in  its  struc- 
ture to  the  flying  torch.     (Fig.  8.) 

The  torches  are  trimmed  by  fitting  into  the  mouth  a  wick 
of  cotton  wicking  six  inches  long.  This  must  fit  closely. 
The  body  of  the  torch  is  then  filled  with  turpentine  or  other 
burning-fluid,  as  petroleum,  etc.  The  flying  torch  attaches 
to  the  staff  "third-joint"  by  clamp-rings  and  screws. 

Flame  Shades. — Each  torch  is  fitted,  when  in  use,  with  a 
flame-shade — a  ring  of  thin  copper,  two  inches  wide,  and 
fitting  by  a  socket  upon  the  torch  in  such  a  way  that  the 
ring  projects  on  all  sides.  This  is  placed  about  one  inch 
below  the  fenestra  or  openings.  The  use  of  this  shade  is  to 
prevent  the  flame  from  travelling  down  the  side  of  the  torch 
and  thus  over-heating  it.  The  flame-shade  is  always  de- 
tached when  the  torch  is  packed. 


192  MANUAL  OF   SIGNALS. 

A  shade,  called  a  Wind  Shade,  is  sometimes  used  in  high 
winds.  It  consists  of  tine  strips  of  copper  attached  to  a 
socket,  and  is  adjusted  upon  the  torch  in  the  same  way  as 
the  flame-shade. 

The  Funnel,  Pliers,  and  Shears  are  used  for  filling  and 
trimming  the  torch. 

A  screw  or  wormer  is  placed  in  the  torch-case  to  be  used 
when  the  wick  may,  by  accident,  be  drawn  so  far  into  the 
tube  of  the  torch  that  it  cannot  be  seized  by  the  pliers. 

The  Service  Set  of  Signal  Equipments  consists  of  fewer 
pieces  than  those  here  given. 

The  modes  of  using  them  are,  however,  identical. 

The  Service  Set  consists  of 

The  Kit — containing  a  four-foot  white  flag,  a  four-foot 
red  flag,  a  flying  torch  with  flame-shade  and  extinguisher, 
a  foot-torch  with  flame-shade  and  extinguisher,  a  funnel,  a 
pair  of  pliers,  a  pair  of  scissors,  a  wormer,  and  a  three-jointed 
staff. 

The  Canteen. 

The  Haversack  is  furnished  with  some  and  omitted  in 
other  styles  of  the  Kit. 

Plate  XIX,  Figs.  1,  6,  4.  There  are  represented  the  kit 
complete,  packed  in  the  signal-case ;  the  canteen  and  the 
haversack. 

Fig.  2.  The  kit  rolled  ready  to  be  placed  in  the  case ; 
the  torches  packed  in  the  torch-case  ;  the  flags  rolled  closely 
together ;  the  four  joints  of  the  staff; — the  whole  bound  by 
the  packing-straps. 

Fig-.  3.  The  torch-case. 

Fig.  5.  Service-can. 

Fig.  6.  Service-canteen. 

Fig.  1.  The  flying  torch. 

Fig.  8.  The  foot-torch. 

Fig.  9.  The  different  flags  in  outline— showing  the  rela- 
tive size. 


Fig.  7. 


PLATE  XX. 


MotT\       Mot2 


rig.  6. 

® 


r 


Douhle   Disc  Single  Disc  "Ready'  Motions   T  "2"  '8' 


Fig.  1. 


Lantern  Signals. 

rig.  2. 


Fig. 


U^ 


A  B  Shelves  S.  Screen  moving  vertically":  w.  r.w.  Lanterns  white, red  white  ;plaeed  on 

Shelves  and  changed  in  position  to  make  any  Signal . 


Flash  Lantern  showing  white 
t-e.i  £cgreen  Flashes. 


italic  Lantern  with  colored  Sfides 


MANUAL   OF   SR'.XAI.K.  l'.i;; 

Signal  Disks. 

Single  Signal-Disks  are  made  of  white  canvas  or  other 
strong  cloth,  stretched  upon  light  rings  or  hoops  of  wire  or 
tough  wood,  ami  having  attached  handles,  by  which  they 
may  be  conveniently  grasped  and  moved. 

The  disks  are  about  afoot  or  eighteen  inches  in  diameter. 
They  bear  at  the  centre  a  round  black  or  red  spot,  of  a 
diameter  equal  to  about  one-fourth  that  of  the  disk. 

The  handles  are  from  a  foot  to  eighteen  inches  in  length. 
They  may  be  fitted  with  sockets,  so  as  to  permit  the  disk- 
to  be  attached  to  longer  rods  or  handles  when  there  is  the 
occasion. 

Signal-disks  may  be  attached  to  long  and  light  canes,  or 
to  the  end  of  a  musket,  or  to  the  arms  of  a  semaphore,  to 
add  to  their  utility. 

Double  Signal-Disks  consist  of  two  signal-disks,  one  at- 
tached at  each  extremity  of  a  staff  about  six  feet  long.  The 
disks  are  about  eighteen  inches  in  diameter.  They  may  be 
of  the  same  color,  or  of  different  colors,  as  one  red  and  one 
white. 

The  dependence  in  signalling  should  be  on  the  position 
and  not  on  the  colors  of  the  disks.  These  are  often  not 
distinguishable.  Disks  are  sometimes  colored  red  on  one 
side  and  white  on  the  other.  This  device  is  useful,  permit- 
ting the  color  of  the  disk  to  be  suited  to  the  background. 
Disks  intended  for  constant  use,  as  at  permanent  stations, 
are  sometimes  woven  of  basket  or  wicker  work. 

There  are  represented,  Plate  XX — Fig.  6,  Single  signal- 
disk  ;  Fig.  7,  Double  signal-disk ;  Fig.  8,  Double  disk  in 
use. 

Semaphobes. 

When,  on  long  lines  of  stations,  towers  or  other  struc- 
tures are  used,  it  may  be  necessary,  for  greater  speed,  to 

9 


194  MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS. 

sometimes  employ  semaphores  for  aerial  telegraphy.  Little 
attention  has  been  paid,  in  our  army,  to  the  great  advan- 
tages, sometimes,  of  their  employment :  the  modes  of  sig- 
nalling in  use  dispensing,  in  a  very  great  measure,  with  the 
necessity  for  them.  On  lines  of  one  or  two  hundred  miles 
in  length,  and  permanent,  they  may  be  useful.  Semaphores 
consist  of  a  post  with  arms.  The  arms  starting  with  about 
three  feet  in  length,  to  be  increased  one  foot  for  every  mile. 
These  arms  are  made  movable  by  ropes  passing  over  wheels 
or  pulleys,  and  moved  by  a  crank  below.  The  arms  should 
be  capable  of  making  twenty-six  different  positions.  This 
is  all  that  is  absolutely  necessary.  Each  position  stands  for 
a  letter  of  the  alphabet.  A  pointer  on  a  dial-face,  placed 
at  the  foot  of  the  machine,  indicates  what  letters  the  arms 
are  showing  when  the  ci"ank  is  in  each  position.  When  a 
letter  is  made,  it  is  kept  in  view  until  it  is  seen  repeated  at 
the  next  station  ;  the  next  letter  is  then  made  ;  and  so  on. 
A  Avatch  is  kept  with  a  telescope,  at  each  station,  in  two 
directions — that  from  which  the  message  is  to  come,  and 
that  to  which  it  is  to  go.  Each  signal  made  is  kept  in 
view,  at  the  sending  station,  until  it  is  seen  correctly  made 
at  the  next  station.  If  the  receiving  station  erroneously 
repeats  any  signal,  the  sending  station  still  holds  the  correct 
signal  in  view  until  it  is  rightly  repeated. 

The  use  of  semaphores  has  been  carried  to  very  great 
perfection  in  Europe,  and  elaborate  accounts  of  their  struc- 
ture are  readily  attainable.  It  is  not  necessary  here  to 
enter  into  a  lengthy  description. 

The  plans  of  CiiAPPJi  are  the  most  elaborate.  The  plans 
of  Popham:  are  sufficient  for  all  uses  likely  to  be  made  in 
this  country. 

Semaphores  are  worked  at  night  by  attaching  lanterns  to 
the  upright,  as  a  point  of  reference ;  other  lanterns  being 
affixed. at  the  ends  of  the  arms.  The  lanterns  are  always 
troublesome. 


MANUAL  03?   SIGNALS. 


L95 


The  plans  for  semaphores  before  given  have  sufficiently 
illustrated  the  devices  by  which  they  may  be  formed. 

[Plates  IV,  .XIV.  XV,  XVI,  XVIH,  etc.] 

They  may  be  of  the  simplest  structure. 

A  strong  pole  and  a  couple  of  light  canes,  with  some 
light  rope  or  strong  twine,  are  sufficient  material  to  con- 
struct any  variety  of  semaphore. 

Or  the  canes  may  be  worked  as  attached  to  the  trunk  of 
any  tree — the  tree-top  branches,  etc.,  being  cut  away. 

Or  any  kind  of  post  may  constitute  an  upright,  and  any 
kind  of  rod  or  staff,  or  piece  of  plank,  may  answer  for  the 
arms. 

The  arms  may  be  attached  by  wooden  pivots,  or  they 
may  be  tied  with  ropes,  so  as  to  move  freely  in  any  neces- 
sary direction.  Where  canes  are  used  as  arms,  disks,  or 
halls  of  hay  wrapped  in  white  cloth,  are  attached  to  their 
extremities,  to  increase  their  visibility. 

The  following  description  and  illustration  is  extracted 
from  Scott's  Military  Dictionary. 

Semaphore  Telegraph. 


2  ; •:--. : 


■M-- 


=3  a 


....  .£, 


"  It  consists  of 
an  upright  post, 
of  moderate 
height;  of  two 
movable  arms, 
fixed  on  the  same 
pivot,  near  the 
top  of  it ;  and  of 
a  mark,  called  an 

indicator,  on  one  side  of  it,  merely  to  distinguish  the  low 
numbers,  1,  2,  3,  from  the  high  numbers,  7,  6,  •"».  Fig.  A 
represents  the  telegraph  exhibiting  the  sign  L 7,  the  other 
positions  of  which  the  arms  are  capable  being  dotted.     Fig. 


198  MANUAL   OF  SIGNALS. 

B  represents  the  telegraph  fitted  up  to  make  nocturnal  sig- 
nals. One  lantern,  called  the  central  light,  is  fixed  to  the 
same  pivot  upon  which  the  arms  move.  Two  other  lanterns 
are  attached  to  the  extremities  of  the  arms.  A  fourth  lan- 
tern, used  as  an  indicator,  is  fixed  on  the  same  horizontal  level 
with  the  central  light,  at  a  distance  from  it  equal  to  twice 
the  length  of  the  arm,  and  in  the  same  plane  nearly  in 
which  the  arms  revolve.  Hence,  the  whole  apparatus  con- 
sists of  two  fixed  and  two  movable  lights — four  in  all.  The 
number  of  telegraphic  signs,  combinations,  or  changes 
which  this  telegraph  is  capable  of  exhibiting,  is  shown  in 
the  '  Table  of  Signs  or  Combinations'  (see  cut  on  page  1U7) ; 
and  one  of  those,  No.  4,  in  the  day  telegraph,  is  liable  to 
be  confounded  with  the  post,  and  should  not,  therefore,  be 
used.  The  number  is,  however,  amply  sufficient  for  tele- 
graphic communication,  whether  by  alphabet  or  by  refer- 
ence to  a  telegraphic  dictionary  of  words  and  sentences. 
The  indicator,  both  by  day  and  night,  is  merely  a  mark,  and  , 
nothing  more ;  and  the  central  light  by  night,  and  the  post 
by  day,  are  also  merely  guides  to  the  eye.  The  signs  of  the 
telegraph  are  in  reality,  therefore,  only  composed  of  com- 
binations of  two  movable  bodies  by  day,  and  two  lights  by 
night.  It  has  been  ascertained  by  experiment  that  the  arms 
for  day-signals  should  be  about  one  foot  in  length  per  mile, 
in  order  to  be  distinguished  by  a  common  portable  tele- 
scope. By  the  above  rule,  a  telegraphic  arm  of  six  feet  in 
length  may  suffice  for  stations  six  miles  apart ;  but  it  is  bet- 
ter to  add  a  little  to  these  dimensions.  The  width  of  the 
arm  need  not  exceed  two-thirteenths  of  its  length.  The 
indicator  should  be  of  the  same  width,  but  only  four-fifths 
of  the  arm  in  length.  The  height  of  the  post  should  be 
such,  that  movable  objects  near  it  should  not  obscure  the 
indicator  or  arms,  when  the  telegraph  is  erected  in  the  field. 
The  telegraphs  hitherto  constructed  on  this  principle  are  of 
two  sizes:  one  having  arms  of  five  and  a  half  feet  in  length, 


MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS. 


197 


TABLE  OF  SIGNS  OR  COMBINATIONS. 


1 

4 

o            o 
°0 

25 

* 

o 
o    o    c 

■J 

1 

O     0    0 

o 

26 

T 

o  o    o  o 

3 

) 

0 

o        o 
o 

27 

? 

ooo 

o- 

4 

J 

o 

0        o 

o 

31 

\ 

0° 
0            o 

5 

-f 

0 
O              0 

o 

35 

T 

o      o 
o        o 

6 

4" 

o        o    o 

0 

36 

r 

o 

o        o   o 

1 

-Is 

o         o 

o 
o 

37 

> 

o 

O            o 

o 

12 

A 

ooo 

0 

45 

f 

°o 
o         ° 

13 

* 

0 

O           0 

0 

46 

-[- 

o 
o         o    o 

1) 

i 

0 

o         o 
o 

47 

\ 

o 
o         o 

15 

i 

o 
o         o 
o 

56 

^ 

o 

O            0     o 

1G 

f 

0              0      0 
0 

57 

* 

o 

O           0 

o 

17 

t 

o        o 

n         O 

C7 

■f 

o        o    o 
o 

23 

} 

O 

ooo 

STOP 

\ 

O             o 

24 

1 

o 
ooo 

FINISH 

i 

o 
o 

198  MANUAL  OF  SIGNALS. 

with  the  lantern-pivots  placed  six  and  a  half  feet  from  the 
centre  of  motion  ;  the  other  having  arms,  two  and  a  half 
feet  in  length  only,  with  the  lantern-pivots  three  feet  two 
inches  from  the  centre  of  motion.     The  latter  are  perfectly 
portable,  as  the  whole  apparatus  does  not  weigh  more  than 
thirty-four  pounds.     In  clear  weather  these  small  telegraphs 
make  signals  distinctly  visible  at  a  distance  of  three  miles. 
"  In  cases  of  emergency,  where  the  portable  telegraph  is 
not  with  an  army,  it  has  been  ascertained  by  experiment 
that  the  most  expeditious  and  satisfactory  arrangement  will 
always  be  to  copy  the  regular  construction  as  closely  as 
circumstances  will  permit.      A  post,  with  two  planks  for 
the  arms,  fixed  externally  on  each  side  of  the  post,  each 
worked  merely  by  a  couple  of  strings,  without  pulleys,  will 
constitute  a  day  telegraph  ;  and  the  addition  of  lanterns  will 
convert  the  same  simple  apparatus  into  a  night  telegraph. 
In  both  cases  the  arms  must  be  counterpoised  by  wood  or 
iron,  and  also  by  weights  in  some  rude  manner,  which  must 
not  impair  the  clearness  of  the  telegraphic  signs." 

Three  lights  will  be  sufficient  for  the  ordinary  uses  of 
this  semaphore  at  night,  if  the  pivot  light  is  made  dis- 
tinguishable by  its  brilliancy  or  its  color  from  the  lights  at 
the  ends  of  the  arms. 


FLAGS  OX  HALYARDS. 

"When  flags  on  halyards  are  used  as  signals,  they  are  fitted 
with  "loops  and  toggles,"  so  that  when  flown  they  are  kept 
each  at  a  distance  from  the  other,  somewhat  greater  than  its 
length.  (Plate  XXI.)  Flag-signals  are  read  from  above, 
downward.  Each  flag  represents  a  numeral  digit.  The  naval 
signal-flags  are  numbered  from  0  to  9.  To  illustrate  their 
use :  If  red  is  known  as  "  4,"  yellow  as  "  3,"  and  blue  as 
"  2,"  to  make  the  number  "  423,"  these  flags  would  be  flown 


Fuji 


PLATE    XXI 


Flags  connected  by         Flag's  lioisted  N°1234  423'  Symbolized 

Loops  and  Toggles.  Distance  Line 


To  R*p*atr*3^  Flags 
X'J  -1433. 


To  Repeat  ^Flag 

^ times. X°  2222. 


To  Repeal  l"Flae  Twice 
"  At>  in  N"  1114 . 


MANUAL  OF  SIGNALS.  109 

together  upon  halyards — red  above  (4),  blue  next  (2),  white 

below  (3) — "423."  It  is  rarely  necessary  to  fly  more  than 
four  flags  together,  or  "in  a  hoist,"  as  it  is  styled,  when  the 
naval  code  is  used.  The  numbered  naval  flags  are  gen- 
erally of  two  colors  combined  in  one  flag.  In  addition  to 
the  numbered  flags,  are  certain  pennants  known  as  repeaters, 
by  which  is  shown  any  numbered  flag  which  is  intended  to 
be  read  as  "repeated,"  or  occurring  twice  or  more  times  in 
any  signal. 

Signal  Flags  are  run  up  on  what  is  termed  a  signal  hal- 
yard (a  rope  passing  through  a  pulley  fixed  at  the  masthead 
or  other  elevated  point)  and  having  at  one  of  its  ends  a 
loop  and  at  the  other  a  toggle.  (Plate  XXI,  Fig.  3.)  The 
toggle  at  the  top  of  the  upper  flag  and  the  loop  on  the  cord 
at  the  bottom  of  the  lower  flag  are  fitted,  the  first  into  the 
halyard  loop,  and  the  second  over  the  halyard  toggle.  The 
flags  are  then  hoisted  by  the  halyards.  The  continuous 
line  formed  by  attaching  several  flags  together  by  means 
of  the  loops  and  toggles,  is  called  the  "distance  line." 

Flags  may  be  extemporized  from  common  materials,  as 
pieces  of  canvas  and  of  cloth,  strips  of  white,  red,  or  blue 
flannel,  etc.  It  is  necessary  only  that  they  be  distinguish- 
able from  each  other.  These  are  displayed  in  the  same 
way,  and  the  signals  are  read  in  the  same  manner.  When 
the  number  of  distinguishable  flags  is  limited,  the  codes 
must  be  arranged  to  contain  that  number  of  elements  only 
which  may  be  indicated,  using  a  distinct  flag  for  each  ele- 
ment. 

Where  there  is  material  of  one  kind  only,  variously 
shaped  flags  may  be  made.  The  distinction  being  then 
made  by  the  differing  forms  of  the  flags. 

Signal-flags  are  made  of  bunting,  which  is  purposely  of 
such  texture  as  to  catch  the  air,  that  it  may  fly  with  a  light 
breeze.  There  is  appended  to  this  book  (Plate  II.)  a  plate 
of  flags  as  now  used  in  the  navy.     By  reference  to  this  and 


200  MANUAL    OF    SIGNALS. 

the  example  of  naval  codes  (page  47,)  it  will  be  under- 
stood how  the  sentences  therein,  or  any  others,  may  be 
represented. 

Plate  XXI  illustrates  the  modes  in  which  the  flags  may 
be  shown. 

Let  it  be  supposed,  that  the  four  flags  shown  on  Plate 
XXI,  Fig.  3,  symbolize  respectively,  taking  them  from 
above  downward,  the  numbers  1,  2,  3,  and  4 ;  then  if  all  of 
them  are  hoisted  together,  as  in  Fig.  3,  the  signal-number 
1234  is  understood  as  shown.  Any  less  number  of  them 
may  be  hoisted  too;ether,  as  in  Fisr.  4 — the  number  423  is 
shown.  In  Figs.  5,  6,  and  7,  the  use  of  the  "repeaters"  is 
exemplified.  In  Fig.  5,  is  shown  the  number  4433  ;  in  Fig. 
6,  the  number  2222;  in  Fig.  7,  the  number  1114.  (See 
page  54.)  The  red,  white,  and  blue  pennants  are  taken  re- 
spectively for  the  first,  second,  and  third  "  repeaters." 

Any  articles,  as  coats,  caps,  handkerchiefs,  boots,  tin  pans, 
etc.,  can  be  designated  by  numbers,  as  1,  2,  3, 4,  and  so  on,  and 
then  hoisted  one  above  the  other,  in  their  proper  order,  on 
halyards,  to  signify  any  signal-number.  (See  Plate  XIV, 
Fig.  9.)     Even  the  "  repeaters"  may  be  devised  if  needed. 


FLAGS  m  MOTION. 

When  signals  are  to  be  made  by  flags  in  motion,  it  is 
necessary  to  take  care  that  the  flags  are  of  bright  colors 
and  clean ;  that  such  colors  are  selected  as  will  most  strongly 
contrast  with  the  background  against  which  the  flags  ap- 
pear when  viewed  by  the  person  receiving  the  message  ;  that 
they  are  of  material,  light,  smooth,  and  which  will  glide 
easily  through  the  air,  as  cotton  or  linen  stuffs — instead  of 
bunting ;  that  the  colors  are  so  arranged  as  to  be  pleasing 
to  the  eye,  which  else  is  sooner  wearied. 


MANUAL  OF  SIGNALS.  201 

The  motions  must  be  rapidly  made,  those  of  each  com- 
bination without  perceptible  interval  between  them.  There 
must  be  care,  and  the  skilful  handling  acquired  by  practice, 
to  prevent  the  entangling  of  the  flag  upon  its  stall'.     The 

motions  must  be  so  made  as  to  display  in  the  lateral  waves 
the  whole  surface  of  the  flag  toward  the  point  of  observa- 
tion. It  is  by  the  quality  of  the  motion  of  the  object  pro- 
ducing a  vivid  and  prolonged  eflfecl  upon  the  eye,  thai  signals 
by  motions  are  capable  of  being  used  at  great  distances. 

In  the  case  of  night-signals  there  is  this  additional  gain, 
that  the  motion  through  the  air  furnishes  a  supply  of  oxygen 
to  consume  the  surplus  carbon  of  the  torch-flame,  giving 
thus  a  light  more  brilliant  than  could  be  otherwise  had. 


SIZES  OF  FLAGS  AND  LENGTH  OF  STAFF. 

There  are  in  the  Regulation  Signal  Equipment  three  kinds 
of  sio-nal-flasrs — the  white,  the  red,  and  the  black  ;  and  three 
sizes  of  flags— the  "  six-foot,"  "  four-foot,"  and  "  two-foot," 
or  action  flag.  In  the  "  Service  Set"  four-foot  flags  only  are 
furnished. 

The  signal-staff  consists  of  four  joints,  each  four  feet  long, 
and  fitted  with  ferules  to  join  to  each  other  joint  by  joint, 
and  so  to  furnish  a  staff  of  greater  or  less  length.  They 
are  known  as  the  first,  second,  third,  and  fourth  joints. 
The  third  joint  is  tipped  with  brass,  and  is  that  to  which 
the  torch  is  attached  for  night-signals. 

For  the  "  Service  Set"  there  are  three  joints,  the  torch 
attaching  to  the  second. 

The  equipment  thus  admits  of  four  styles  of  using  the 
flaix  apparatus:  1st,  A  single  joint  of  the  staff  with  the 
"action-Hag,"  for  short  distances.  2d.  Two  joints  of  the 
staff,  with  either  the  "four-foot"  or  the  "action-flag."  3d. 
Three  joints  of  the  staff,  with  either  the  " six-foot"  or  " four- 

9* 


202  MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS. 

foot  flag."  4th.  Four  joints,  or  the  whole  staff,  with  either 
the  "  four-foot"  or  "  six-foot  flag,"  for  the  greatest  distances. 
(Plate  XIX  ;  and  Plate  X,  Figs.  3,  4,  5,  6.) 

Where  it  is  difficult  to  attract  attention,  two  flags  are 
sometimes  used  together  upon  the  whole  staff. 

In  case  of  exposure  to  an  enemy's  fire,  it  is  sometimes 
necessary  to  increase  the  length  of  staff,  so  that  the  sig- 
nals may  appear  above  some  shelter  while  the  signalist  is 
protected. 

The  apparatus  for  the  greatest  distances  is  rarely  used. 
The  four-foot  flags  are  for  use  in  ordinary  working,  and 
shordd  be  habitually  used  with  the  twelve-foot  staff.  The 
use  of  the  four-foot  flag  should  be  compulsory.  The  temp- 
tation is  great  on  the  part  of  the  flagman  to  substitute  for 
it,  at  improper  times,  the  action-flag,  and  thus  needlessly 
render  the  transmission  of  messages  difficult  and  uncertain. 

The  two-foot  or  action  flag  is  for  use  in  exceptional  cases 
only.  An  action-flag,  as  its  name  indicates,  is  for  use  when 
a  heavy  fire  may  compel  the  flagman  to  lie  down  or  to  seek 
shelter,  while  the  signals  must,  at  the  same  time,  be  made. 
This  flag  can  be  read  sufficiently  well  with  the  telescope,  its 
exact  position  being  once  determined,  at  any  distance  likely 
to  be  needed  on  the  field  of  battle.  This  flag  is  useful  in 
reconnoissances  near  the  enemy,  when  some  fixed  point  be- 
ing agreed  on  from  which  to  report,  it  can  be  used  with  little 
danger  of  attracting  the  attention  of  the  enemy.  Thus  it 
may  be  used  in  any  opening  among  the  trees,  at  a  place 
previously  concerted,  and  it  will  be  thus  hidden  from  the 
enemy,  and  be  in  view  to  the  observing  officers.  The  pre- 
concert is  necessary  to  prevent  the  difficulty  of  finding  the 
flag,  otherwise  to  arise.  It  should  be  always  so  particular 
that  thei'e  can  be  no  misunderstanding.  No  station  should 
be  permitted  to  use  this  flag  for  ordinary  communication 
without  the  especial  permission  of  the  officer  in  charge  of 
the  detachment.     The  stations  to  use  action-flags  should  be 


MWUAL    OF   SIGNALS.  203 

carefully  selected  and  established  on  the  lines  prior  to  an 
action,  and  the  glasses  at  the  communicating  stations  should 

be  fixed  upon  then.     These  points  should  be  hidden  from 
the  enemy,  if  possible. 


LANTERNS. 

Some  description  of  flash-lanterns  has  been  given  at 
page  88.  Colored  lanterns  may  be  used  as  signals,  being 
swung  upon  a  halyard,  and  a  signal-number  being  indicated 
by  each,  thus:  White,  standing  for  one;  red,  standing  for 
two ;  green,  standing  for  three.  When  lanterns  are  used 
in  this  way  they  are  suspended  one  above  the  other,  and 
about  three  feet  apart.  The  signal  is  read  from  above 
downward.  Thus  "  321"  would  be  shown  by  lanterns  hung 
in  the  following  order:  a  green  lantern  above  (.3),  a  red 
lantern  next  (2),  a  white  lantern  below  (l).  Lanterns  indi- 
cating signal-numbers  may  be  arranged  horizontally.  The 
signals  are  then  read  from  the  left  to  the  right  of  the 
observer. 

Letters  can  be  signalled  with  some  speed  by  the  use  of 
colored  lanterns  ;  the  lanterns  standing  on  a  frame  or  board, 
and  their  relative  positions  rapidly  changed  by  hand  to 
make  each  letter.  All  the  lanterns  must  be  eclipsed  to 
mark  the  end  of  each  letter;  longer  eclipses  mark  the  ends 
of  words  and  sentences. 

Apian  of  a  frame  for  this  signalling  is  given  in  Plate  XX, 
Figs.  1,  2,  3.  The  lanterns  w-r-w,  hidden  by  the  screens, 
are  placed  on  either  shelf  in  the  order  to  make  any  letter. 
The  screen  is  then  raised  and  the  signal  exhibited  as  long 
as  may  be  necessary,  when  the  screen  is  again  lowered. 
Two  sets  of  lanterns  can  be  used,  one  for  each  shelf.  In 
this  case,  the  letter-signals  are  arranged  on  the  shelves 
alternately — those  on  the  upper  shelf,  while  the  lanterns  on 
the  lower  are  exposed;  and  so  for  each  in  turn. 


204  MANUAL    OF   SIGNALS. 

Flash  Lanterns,  flashing  white,  red,  and  green  by  springs, 
are  complicated  in  structure,  and  are  apt  to  be  disabled  by 
accidents. 

The  Magic  Lantern,  with  a  "  flash  slide,"  to  flash  white 
and  red  only,  as  at  Plate  XX,  is  perhaps  the  best  form  to 
be  used  for  signalling. 

This  lantern  is  wholly  dark  until  it  is  opened  for  use.  It 
is  then  dark  in  all  directions  except  that  in  which  the  lens- 
tube  is  turned.  The  flash  is  intense.  The  lens-tube  can  be 
adjusted  to  give  the  best  light  at  different  distances.  The 
structure  is  lis;ht,  strong,  and  not  liable  to  be  deranged. 
The  glass  slides  can  be  so  made  as  to  be  almost  safe  from 
breakage.  The  whole  requires  no  more  care  than  a  common 
lantern. 

The  flash-slide  can  be  worked  by  being  moved  back  and 
forth  by  the  hand.  Or  it  can  be  made  to  move  mechanically 
by  the  working  of  a  handle  attaching  to  it  by  simple  appli- 
ances, so  as  to  flash  with  great  precision. 

The  slide  may  be  so  colored  as  to  cause  white,  red,  and 
green  flashes,  and  so  be  used  for  any  code  of  signals.  (Plate 
XXI.) 

Common  lanterns  are  fitted  to  change  color  by  a  chimney 
of  colored  glass  adjustable  over  the  flame,  and  moved  with- 
out opening  the  lantern.  A  single  lantern  may  be  thus 
changed  at  will  to  be  white,  or  red,  or  green.  This  style  is 
convenient  for  ship  use. 

Four  lanterns  of  this  kind  are  all  that  need  be  had  on 
deck,  at  one  time,  to  make  any  signal. 


TORCHES. 

The  "flying  torch"  and  the  "foot-light"  of  the  standard 
signal  equipment  are  already  described. 

Signal-torches  were  devised  to  meet  the  requirements  of 


MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS.  205 

active  service ; — to  furnish  the  mosl  brillianl  lighl  :  one  that 
could  be  lighted  in  the  open  air,  or  in  rain,  at  any  time;  to 
be  put  in  rapid  and  constant  motion  ;  to  be  inextinguishable 
by  wind;  to  have  little  weight  ;  to  be  used  without  glass; 
to  be  simple  and  strong,  with  no  breaking  parts;  to  be 
carried  anywhere,  on  horseback  or  ou^ foot;  to  endure  the 
constant  vicissitudes  of  the  most  active  and  roughesl  sen  ice. 
There  are  scissors,  pliers,  and  funnel  for  trimming  and  tilling 
the  torch. 

Signal-torches  consist  of  a  cylinder  of  copper  closed  at 
one  end,  and  so  arranged  that  they  may  be  filed  with  any 
burning-fluid.  Turpentine  is  generally  used;  and  when 
prepared  for  signalling,  a  saturated  wick  of  cotton  strands, 
of  the  size  of  the  cylinder  and  about  six  inches  long,  is  in- 
serted in  the  "  light-end"  of  the  torch.  The  wick  being 
first  prepared,  is  introduced  by  a  twisting  or  screwing  mo- 
tion :  the  torch  is  rilled  with  turpentine  and  the  wick  is 
lighted.      (Plate  XIX;  and  X,  Figs.  5,  6.) 

The  copper  of  the  torch  becomes  heated,  and  so  converts 
a  portion  of  the  turpentine  into  a  gas  rich  in  carbon,  which, 
to  escape,  must  pass  through  the  flame  of  the  wick.  The 
rapid  motions  in  signalling,  driving  the  torch  through  the 
air,  furnishes  a  supply  of  oxygen  to  heat  a  portion  of  this 
surplus  carbon,  and  there  is  thus  had  great  brilliancy  of 
light. 

With  torches,  as  with  flags,  the  effect  of  the  motion  of  a 
signal  to  produce  a  prolonged  and  vivid  impression  upon 
the  eye,  adds  much  to  their  usefulness  for  signals. 

Signals  by  torches .  are  easily  read  at  a  distance  of  ten 
miles,  and  have  been  often  used  at  fifteen.  Signal-torches 
may  be  used  for  any  plan  of  signalling  for  which  lights  of 
only  one  color  are  needed. 

It  is  probable  that  torches  can  be  very  much  improved, 
or  a  better  light  maybe  substituted  for  them.  If  wick-  of 
asbestos  cloth  or  wire-<_rauze  could  be  substituted  for  those 


208  MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS. 

iii  common  use,  it  would  be  a  valuable  improvement.  These 
would  give  no  sparks  and  require  no  trimming.  It  is  pos- 
sible the  magnesium  light  may  be  applied  to  this  use  for 
signalling. 

As  a  general  rule,  if  stations  once  established  are  not 
more  than  ten  miles  distant,  the  regulation  torch-light, 
shown  in  motion  at  one,  will  be  seen  with  the  naked  eye, 
or  the  marine  glass,  at  the  other,  as  a  light  sufficiently 
strong  to  attract  attention. 

When  working  at  night,  the  foot-torch  is  to  be  filled  as 
often  as  it  becomes  exhausted,  without  stopping  signals  or 
extinguishing  its  light.  If  it  becomes  necessary  to  fill  the 
flying  torch,  while  transmitting  a  message,  drop  the  torch 
to  the  left,  extinguish  and  fill  it  in  that  position,  and  then 
light  it  again  at  the  foot-torch  ;  bring  it,  thus  lighted,  ver- 
tically above  the  head,  which  is  the  signal  that  the  message 
is  to  proceed  and  go  on  as  before. 

It  should  be  observed  with  care  that  the  wicks  of  the 
signal  torches  are  properly  adjusted.  If  the  wicks  are  too 
tight,  the  torch  will  not  burn  well.  If  they  are  too  loose, 
the  turpentine  will  escape,  and  it  will  burn  too  violently. 
The  wick  of  a  flying  torch  is  properly  trimmed  when  the 
flame  of  the  burning  torch  seems  to  be  about  three  inches 
in  diameter. 

When  a  flying  torch  becomes  too  much  heated  while 
working — a  fact  which  will  be  known  by  the  sighing  sound 
and  increased  size  of  the  flame — the  working  must  stop  for 
a  few  minutes,  and  the  torch  be  held  up,  the  signal-staff 
being  kept  perpendicular,  until  the  flame  has  diminished  to 
a  proper  size.  A  flying  torch  should  be  filled,  on  the 
average,  every  fifteen  minutes.  If  the  torch  is  not  kept 
well  filled,  it  will  continue  to  burn,  but  the  wick  will  be 
reduced  to  a  cinder;  one  wick,  properly  managed,  and  with 
care  to  keep  the  torch  well  filled  while  in  use,  will  last  for 
a  week. 


MANUAL   OF  SIGNALS.  207 

When  the  wind  blows  from  such  a  direction  as,  by  driv- 
ing back  the  flame  of  the  foot-torch,  to  render  the  light  of 
that  torch  indistinct  when  viewed  from  the  communicating 
station,  so  place  the  torch  as  to  bring  the  wind-shade  upon 
it  in  direct  opposition  to  the  wind;  and  if  this  should  not 
suffice,  build  behind  the  torch  a  screen,  about  two  feet  high 
and  two  feet  long,  of  stones,  earth,  boards,  or  any  other 
material,  so  that  while  the  foot-torch  is  in  front  of  the 
screen,  and  in  view  of  the  communicating  station,  its  flame 
will  be  in  the  dead  air,  caused  by  and  in  front  of  the  screen. 

In  cases  of  emergency,  torches  may  be  constructed  of 
pitch-pine,  old  cordage,  canvas,  rags,  or  other  material,  sat- 
urated with  tar,  or  with  any  combustible  fluid.  Firebrands, 
or  any  lights,  will  answer  the  purpose.  With  the  preced- 
ing instructions  of  the  Manual,  the  signalist  need  hardly 
have  in  question  the  devices  to  be  used.  Any  light  that 
can  be  visible  will  afford  sufficient  means  by  which  to  trans- 
mit signal  messages  iu  any  variety. 


CANDLE-BOMBS. 

Candle-Bombs  are  pasteboard  shells,  charged  with  bril- 
liant stars.  These  shells  ai-e  so  fitted  with  fuses  that  they 
can  be  thrown  into  the  air  and  exploded  at  a  great  height. 
They  afford  very  distinct  and  marked  signals.  The  bombs 
are  of  various  sizes,  in  diameter,  from  four  to  ten  inches. 
When  the  bomb  is  prepared  for  use,  there  is  attached  to  it 
an  ordinary  cartridge  of  powder  fitted  with  a  long  match. 
These  bombs  are  fired  from  bomb-guns  or  mortars,  which 
consist  of  a  hollow  cylinder  formed  of  thick  pasteboard, 
sole-leather,  or  sheet-copper,  two  or  three  feet  in  length,  of 
sufficient  diameter  to  readily  admit  the  bomb,  and  closed 
at  one  end  by  a  block  of  wood  or  a  plate  of  some  metal. 
Where  others  cannot  be  had,  mortars  for  this  purpose  may 


208  MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS. 

be  hollowed  from  pieces  of  tough  wood.  A  tube  of  the 
proper  size  of  almost  any  strong  material,  and  closed  at  one 
end,  will  serve  the  purpose  of  a  mortar. 

The  mortars  may  be  fitted  with  a  lock,  for  the  purpose 
of  firing. 

To  load  the  mortar,  the  bomb,  with  the  cartridge  at- 
tached to  its  lower  side,  is  placed  in  the  cylinder;  care 
being  taken  that  the  firing  match,  which  is  to  ignite  the 
powder  and  which  also  leads  to  the  fuse  of  the  shell,  pro- 
jects a  suitable  length  above  the  shell.  The  charge  is  fired 
by  igniting  this  match.  (Plate  XXII.)  These  mortars  are 
light  and  strong,  and  can  be  carried  anywhere,  on  horse- 
back or  on  foot.  The  bombs  are  as  easily  transportable  as 
any  other  kind  of  ammunition.  The  signals  made  by  the 
explosion  of  these  shells  are  as  marked  and  powerful  as  any 
that  have  been  devised.  The  apparatus  is  free,  both  in  its 
transportation  and  use,  from  many  of  the  inconveniences 
that  attach  to  rockets. 

Signal-mortars  charged  with  powder  only,  can  be  used 
to  make  smoke-puffs  by  day.  There  will  be  the  advantage 
that  the  puff  is  accompanied  by  the  report  of  the  mortar. 

Candle-bombs  can  be  so  charged  as  to  give,  when  fired 
with  a  match,  a  loud  report,  and  so  serve  many  purposes — 
as  to  attract  attention  or  to  alarm  on  the  approach  of  the 
enemy.  It  is  said  that  wooden  shells  may  be  made  to  give 
a  report  as  loud  as  that  of  a  six-poundei-.  Such  shells  are 
turned  in  halves,  and  screwed  together.  If  the  bomb  is 
fired  from  the  mortar,  there  will  be  the  additional  advan- 
tage, that  this  explosion  will  be  at  a  considerable  elevation. 

There  will  be,  to  attract  attention,  both  the  report  of  the 
bomb,  and  the  puff  of  smoke  from  its  explosion. 

Outposts,  upon  roads  by  which  an  enemy  is  expected, 
may  be  supplied  with  both  mortar  and  bombs,  as  is  best; 
or  with  the  bombs  alone,  to  be  exploded  upon  the  approach 
of  a  hostile  force. 


PLATE     XXI 1. 


Lighted  nuii.li 


"'"xy 


Svinal     Mortal 


Candle  bomb  with 
Cartridge  attached 


f'andle  bomb 


charged  wtOi  Candle  bomb 
match  lighted 


Signal  Man 
3.1  complete. 


Park  anlinal  with  Pain  liers  and  Mortar. 


Signal  Ifumber       l  3  5     =     135 

EtockeTB -with. thru    in:ii<'h«>t«fV>r  chrono»«iin.<-  Slgii.-ih) 


ftrin.4  rockets  from tin'  hand-. 


Socket  bead  and  Mi.-k 


MANUAL  OF   SIGNALS.  209 

For  transportation,  candle-bombs  may  be  conveniently 
packed  in  panniers,  to  be  borne  by  a  park-animal,  the  mor- 
tar being  packed  upon  the  saddle. 

There  are  no  articles  more  effective  for  signal  ptirpo 
than  the  signal-mortar  with  its  bombs.     Their^general  use 
will  develop  possibilities  of  signalling  which  have  not  hith- 
erto been  conceived. 


PUFFS  AND   FLASHES. 

Puffs  of  smoke  may  be  made  by  day,  or  Hashes  shown  at 
nio-ht,  by  igniting  any  quantity  of  powder  by  means  of  a 
quick-match  ;  or  by  flashing  it  upon  coals,  if  the  quantity  is 
small. 

A  convenient  form  of  package  is  the  common  cannon  car- 
tridge, in  which  may  be  inserted  a  length  of  quick-match 
when  it  is  to  be  fired.  The  cartridge  can  be  carried  in  a 
ponch  or  in  panniers. 

Powder-flashes  can  be  seen  at  a  great  distance  at  night. 
The  quantity  of  powder  to  be  in  each  flash  can  he  increased 
in  proportion  to  the  distance  at  which  the  signalling  is  to 
be.     The  firing  must  be  with  proper  precaution-;. 

Flashes  of  colored  fires  may  be  made  by  burning  them 
upon  an  iron  pan;  or  when  the  signal  is  to  be  for  a  great 
distance,  or  is  to  attract  attention,  as  of  a  beleaguered  garri- 
son, a  quantity  of  the  composition,  as  half  a  pound  or  a 
pound,  must  be  heaped  together  and  ignited  by  a  match. 

In  General  Marcy's  "Prairie  Traveler"  are  these  sugges- 
tions : 

"Very  dense  smokes  may  be  raised  by  kindling  a  large 
tire  with  dry  wood,  and  piling  upon  it  the  green  boughs  of 
pine,  balsam,  or  hemlock.  This  throws  oil"  a  heavy  cloud  of 
black  smoke  which  can  be  seen  very  far. 


210  MANUAL   OF    SIGNALS. 

"  This  simple  method  of  telegraphing,  so  useful  to  the 
savages  both  in  war  and  in  peace,  may,  in  my  judgment, 
be  used  to  advantage  in  the  movements  of  troops  co-oper- 
ating in  separate  columns  in  the  Indian  country. 

"  For  example,  when  two  columns  are  marching  through 
a  couutry  at  such  distances  apart  that  smokes  may  be  seen 
from  one  to  the  other,  their  respective  positions  may  be 
made  known  to  each  other  at  any  time  by  two  smokes 
raised  simultaneously  or  at  certain  preconcerted  intervals. 

"Should  the  commander  of  one  column  desire  to  com- 
municate with  the  other,  he  raises  three  smokes  simulta- 
neously, which,  if  seen  by  the  other  party,  should  be 
responded  to  in  the  same  manner.  They  would  then  hold 
themselves  in  readiness  for  any  other  communications. 

"  If  an  enemy  is  discovered  in  small  numbers,  a  smoke 
raised  twice  at  fifteen  minutes'  interval  would  indicate  it ; 
and  if  in  large  force,  three  times  with  the  same  intervals 
might  be  the  signal. 

"  Should  the  commander  of  one  party  desire  the  other  to 
join  him,  this  might  be  telegraphed  by  four  smokes  at  ten 
minutes'  interval. 

"  Should  it  become  necessary  to  change  the  direction  of 
the  line  of  march,  the  commander  may  transmit  the  order 
by  means  of  two  simultaneous  smokes  raised  a  certain  num- 
ber of  times  to  indicate  the  particular  direction ;  for  in- 
stance, twice  for  north,  three  times  for  south,  four  times  for 
east,  and  five  times  for  west ;  three  smokes  raised  twice  for 
north-east,  three  times  for  north-west,  etc.,  etc. 

"By  multiplying  the  combinations  of  signals  a  great 
variety  of  messages  might  be  transmitted  in  this  manner ; 
but,  to  avoid  mistakes,  the  signals  should  be  written  down 
and  copies  furnished  the  commander  of  each  separate  party, 
and  they  need  not  necessarily  be  made  known  to  other  per- 
sons. 

"  During  the  day  an  intelligent  man  should  be  detailed 


MANUAL  OF  SIGNALS.  211 

to  keep  a  vigilant  look-out  in  all  directions  for  smokes,  and 
he  should  be  furnished  with  a  watch,  pencil,  and  paper,  to 
make  a  record  of  the  signals,  with  their  number,  and  the 
time  of  the  intervals  between  them." 

AVhen  smokes  are  to  be  raised  "at  intervals,"  they  are 
made  by  having  the  green  branches  ready  in  bundles  and 
spreading  them  upon  the  fire  kept  briskly  burning  at  the 
appointed  times.  The  cannon  cartridge  puffs  can  often 
be  used  more  conveniently.  The  Indians  are  said  to  build 
tires  in  holes  and  confine  the  dense  smoke  therein  by  spread- 
ing a  blanket,  which  they  remove  at  proper  times  to  make 
the  "  puffs." 


MATCHES. 

There  should  be  carried  in  every  kit-haversack  or  pan- 
nier '•  Wind  Matches,"  or  those  so  prepared  with  composi- 
tion as  to  be  inextinguishable  by  wind  or  rain.  There 
should  be  supplied  some  yards  of  quick-match,  and  some 
prepared  slow-match.  Cotton  string  or  rope  make  a  good 
slow-match. 

Some  sticks  of  "  prepared  punk,"  the  common  firing  match 
of  pyrotechnists,  should  be  among  the  stores. 


THE  USE  OF  ROCKETS  FOR  SIGNALS. 

The  advantages  to  be  gained  by  the  use  of  rockets  are 
dependent  upon  the  fact  that  they  attain  great  elevation, 
and  are  sometimes  visble  when  signals,  made  on  the  ground, 
would  be  unseen.  Rockets,  also,  readily  attract  attention. 
They  are  visible,  under  favorable  circumstances,  at  about 
the  same  distance  as  the  Coston  lights.     They  are  not  reli- 


212  MANUAL    OF    SIGNALS. 

able  for  signals  at  a  greater  distance  than  eight  miles,  unless 
they  are  used  simply  with  reference  to  their  number,  as 
exhibited  one  at  a  time,  two  at  a  time,  three  at  a  time,  and 
so  on,  to  indicate  different  messages  ;  or  when  made  to 
throw  out  clusters  of  stars  of  a  single  color,  as  all  white,  or 
all  red;  when,  by  the  mass  of  light  thus  given,  they  be- 
come visible  at  lono-er  rano-es. 

The  plan  of  Chronosemic  Signals  affords,  by  far,  the  best 
mode  of  using  rockets  vet  suo-o-ested. 

When  rockets  are  used  for  Chronosemic  Signals,  time  is 
taken  from  the  explosion  of  each  rocket.  The  rockets  may 
be  fitted  for  firing  either  with  very  quick  fuses,  so  that  no 
perceptible  time  is  lost  in  the  ignition,  or  with  a  correctly 
timed  fuse.  A  number  of  rockets  may  be  connected,  the 
fuse  extending  from  rocket  to  rocket,  and  the  lengths  of  fuse 
between  the  rockets  so  regulated  as  to  cause  the  firings  at 
the  proper  time.     (Plate  XXII.) 

A  yard  of  common  quick-match  burns  twelve  seconds. 
Time-intervals  may  be  arranged  by  proportioned  lengths. 
If  the  match  is  moist,  it  will  not  burn  regularly. 

The  visibility  of  rockets  is  apt  to  be  overrated  by  inex- 
perienced signalists.  They  cannot  be  successfully  used  in 
a  wooded  country,  for  the  rocket  rises  above  the  trees.  The 
observer,  at  the  communicating  station,  must  also  be  above 
the  trees,  or  he  will  not  be  able  to  see  it. 

Sometimes,  when  clouds  hang  low,  rockets  throw  out 
their  stars  above  the  clouds,  and  thus  become  invisible. 
They  are  liable  to  many  mischances  which  do  not  attach  to 
less  complicated  articles.  There  are,  however,  many  occa- 
sions for  their  use,  and  every  well-equipped  signal  party 
ought  to  be  provided  with  them.  The  rockets  furnished 
by  the  Ordnance  Department  of  the  Army  are  generally 
made  with  the  sticks  attached,  or  to  be  attached,  by  wires. 
A  preferable  plan  is  that  introduced  into  this  country  by 
the  Messrs.  Edge,  of  New  York,  and  since  made  a  part  of 


.MANUAL   OF  SIGNALS.  21 


■> 


the  plan  in  the  construction  of. 'ill  the  signal-rockets  for  the 
use  of  the  Signal  Corps.  (PI.  XXII.)  The  rockets  of  this 
device  have  fastened,  on  one  side  of  the  case  or  head,  ;i  Binall 
pasteboard  tube.  This  is  called  a  "sling,"  and  is  for  the 
purpose  of  attaching  the  stick  to  the  head.  The  rocket-stick 
is  made  to  taper  slightly  at  its  extremity.  The  rocket-heads 
and  rocket-Sticks  are  carried  separately,  until  it  is  desired 
to  use  the  rocket.  Then,  to  attach  the  head  to  the  stick, 
the  tapering  extremity  of  the  stick  is  thrust  into  the  tube 
or  "sling,"  with  a  moderate  pressure.  It  will  be  found  that 
Sticks  thus  fastened  adhere  with  sufficient  strength  lor  any 
purpose  of  firing.  The  gain  in  the  ease  of  transportation, 
and  in  the  readiness  with  which  the  rocket  can  be  prepared 
for  firing,  is  very  great.  When  rockets  are  to  be  trans- 
ported for  great  distances,  the  heads  ought  to  be  packed  in 
strong  boxes;  carrying,  say,  titty  heads  to  a  box.  The 
sticks  should  be  packed  by  themselves,  in  packages  of  titty 
sticks  to  a  package,  and  wired  or  bound  strongly  on  the 
outside.  These  packages  should  be  made  up  of  smaller 
packages,  in  which  the  sticks  are  bound  together  by  sixes. 
The  sticks  are  thus  ready  for  distribution  for  use,  as  soon 
as  the  main  package  is  open.  When  rockets  are  to  be 
transported  rapidly,  for  short  distances,  as  to  accompany 
the  march  of  a  column  sent  for  any  particular  purpose,  or 
to  be  carried  to  any  particular  station,  the  heads  may  be 
carried  in  panniers,  upon  pack-animals;  or  a  lew  heads 
may  be  carried,  rolled  in  a  blanket,  behind  the  saddle,  or  in 
a  h.i\  ersack,  or  in  any  kind  of  a  pouch  or  bag.  Care  should 
be  taken  to  arrange  that  the  heads  may  be  so  bound  down 
that  they  will  not  be  shaken  or  rubbed  violently  together 
in  the  transportation.  For  the  want  of  this  precaution, 
rockets  are  often  found  useless  on  arriving  at  the  tiring  sta- 
tion. Kocket-sticks  should  always  be  carried  detached  from 
the  head,  and  bound  together  in  little  packages  ;  as  of  four, 
or  six,  or  eight.     The  strength  gained  by  this  union,  renders 


214  MANUAL  OF   SIGNALS. 

it  almost  impossible  to  break  them.  -These  packages  can  be 
easily  carried  by  men  on  foot ;  or,  by  mounted  men,  they 
can  be  carried  over  the  bow  of  the  saddle,  or  with  the 
lower  part  of  the  package  resting  on  the  stirrup,  or  in  other 
ways  which  will  suggest  themselves.  When  such  packages 
of  sticks  are  to  be  carried  on  a  pack-saddle,  they  should  be 
attached  lengthwise  of  the  animal.  If  carried  crosswise 
upon  the  saddle,  the  ends  may  come  in  contact  with  other 
objects  on  the  road.  The  signalist  should  always  person- 
ally inspect  the  packing  of  rocket  heads  and  sticks,  before 
starting  on  a  march.  He  should  notice  particularly  that 
the  paper  stretched  across  the  "choke"  opening  of  the 
rocket,  and  which  covers  the  match,  is  unbroken.  If  the 
rockets  are  made  with  star-heads,  he  should  see  that  these 
are  not  damaged.  He  should  take  care  that  there  are 
packed  in  his  kit  slow-matches  or  port-fires,  and  extra 
quick-matches,  to  be  used  in  case  the  matches  attached  to 
the  rocket  fail.  It  is  well  to  carry  extra  stars  of  all  kinds, 
when  they  can  be  obtained.  A  damaged  rocket  can  often 
be  refitted  by  inserting  new  matches,  if  the  match  has  been 
lost ;  and  by  refitting  the  heads  with  stars,  if  those  origin- 
ally placed  have  been  broken  or  are  missing.  To  rematch 
a  rocket,  a  piece  of  quick-match  must  be  doubled  upon 
itself,  so  as  to  consist  of  two  stems,  and  be  then  thrust  far 
into  the  "  choke"  orifice  of  the  rocket.  It  can  be  carried 
well  into  the  body  of  the  rocket  by  a  piece  of  wire,  or  a 
slender  stick.  To  refit  a  rocket  with  new  stars,  it  is  only 
necessary  to  remove  the  cap  upon  the  upper  end,  and  to 
fill  the  cavity  in  the  tube,  which  will  be  thus  exposed,  with 
stars  of  whatever  color.  A  little  mealed  powder  should 
be  sprinkled  among  them.  These  stars  may  then  be  re- 
tained in  place  by  either  restoring  the  cap,  or  with  a  wad 
of  paper  loosely  placed  above  them.  The  rocket  will  as- 
cend and  throw  out  its  stars  equally  well  without  or  with 
the  cap.     Any  rocket,  of  suitable  size,  may  be  made  to 


MANUAL   OF    SIGNALS.  215 

show  a  bright  flash  at  a  great  elevation,  by  removing  the 
head-cap,  and  attaching  in  its  place  a  half-pound  cartridge 

of  powder  :  the  powder  to  till  the  star-cavity.     It  will  be  ig- 
nited when,  at  the  end  of  its  flight,  the  rocket  explodes. 

Of  Firing  Rockets. 

When  rockets  are  to  be  fired,  the  sticks  must  be  attached : 
the  rocket  placed  upright  as  upon  a  frame,  or  against  a 
fence  or  post,  the  paper  covering  the  "choke"  orifice  is 
broken,  and  the  firing  match,  which  will  then  be  found,  is 
drawn  out  to  a  length  of  two  or  three  inches.  The  rocket 
is  fired  by  igniting  this  match.  If  the  night  is  damp,  the 
match  ought  to  be  exposed  only  a  moment  before  the  rocket 
is  fired.  If  several  rockets  are  to  be  fired  in  succession,  it  is 
well  to  prepare  them  all  at  the  same  time,  and  to  have  them 
all  stood  upright,  but  each  separated  from  the  other,  at  a 
distance  of  at  least  six  feet,  else  one  may  ignite  the  other 
accidentally.  In  firing  for  Chronosemic  Signals,  one  rocket 
ought  to  be  kept  ready  upon  the  frame  and  in  reserve,  to 
be  fired  in  place  of  any  other  that  may  fail. 

If  a  rocket  misses  fire,  it  is  to  be  taken  from  the  stand 
and  laid  on  the  ground.  Its  place  is  at  once  supplied  by  a 
similar  rocket,  fired  in  its  stead.  The  failing  rocket  is  laid 
on  the  ground,  in  order  that,  if  it  has  only  hung  fire  and 
should  afterward  ignite,  it  may  not  disarrange  the  signal 
shown.  Extra  rockets  should  be  always  at  hand,  to  supply 
the  place  of  the  failing  rockets.  All  rockets  near  the  firing 
station  should  he  kept  in  a  horizontal  position.  If  the  wind 
blow  freshly  from  any  direction,  the  rocket  to  be  fired 
should  be  inclined  slightly  against  the  wind.  Some  pyro- 
technists direct  the  rocket  to  be  inclined  with  the  wind. 
In  default  of  a  stand,  or  objects  against  which  to  place  the 
rockets,  the  rocket  may  be  rested  against  the  hand,  held 
extended  at  arm's  length,  and  be  thus  fired.     Experienced 


216 


MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS. 


pyrotechnists  find  no  difficulty  in  firing  in  this  manner.  The 
rocket  should  rest  lightly  against  the  hand,  which  should 
touch  it  on  the  case,  and  just  above  the  "  choke"  orifice. 
(Plate  XXII.) 


COMPOSITION"  FIRES. 

Composition  Fires  are  pyrotechnic  compositions  which 
burn  with  great  intensity  of  light  and  of  color.  The  colors, 
red,  white,  and  green,  are  found  to  be  best  suited  for  sig- 
nalling. A  very  ingenious  and  convenient  mode  is  as 
follows : 


Coston's  Composition  Telegraphic  Night-Signals. 


6 


□ 


.     E 


H  I 


H  I  |  -  B 

Explanation. — These  signals,  prepared  in  the  form  of 
cartridges,  are  burned  from  a  holder.  The  signals,  while 
burning,  will  show  the  colors  and  correspond  with  the 
numbers  above  indicated. 

Directions  for  Use.— When  it  is  desired  to  communicate 
with  a  certain  distant  point,  first  use  the  P  (preparatory)  sig- 
nal ;  and  if  answered  by  the  A  (answering)  signal,  it  shows 
that  the  preparatory  signal  was  seen.  After  which,  place  in 
rapid  succession,  on  the  holder,  the  numbers  desired  to  be 
communicated ;  for  instance :  if  the  numbers  selected  should 
be  726,  the  No.  1  is  placed  on  the  holder  and  ignited,  which 


PLATE  XXIII. 


Signal  Pistol . 


Signal  Lights. 
Goinposilion  fires 


Signal  Pistol  Charged 
with  composition  Light. 


Signal  Pistol  Fired 


Belt  box  open  showing 
Signal  Lights  Contained 


Telescope  uncapped  &  opened  for  use 


Strap  A  case  for     Telescope  closed  and 
Binocular  Glass,     capped  for  u-ansportaiion 


Wand  for  practice. 


Instruction  in  Signaling; 
practice  with  wands. 


MANUAL  OF  SIGNALS.  217 

will,  of  course,  show  a  green  flame;  as  soon  as  the  light  is 
out,  immediately  replace  it  by  No.  2,  which  "will  show  a 
white  succeeded  by  a  red  flame;  and  then  replace  with  X<>. 
0,  rod  and  green.  If  any  further  combination  of  numbers 
is  to  be  signalled,  before  receiving  an  answer  an  interval  of 
not  more  than  three-quarters  of  a  minute  should  be  taken. 
Should  this  interval  be  exceeded,  an  answer  may  be  re- 
turned. 

The  person  stationed  to  note  the  colors  telegraphed  to  him 
should  be  cautioned  against  looking  at  the  brilliant  flame  of 
the  signals  burning  near  him,  as  thereby  the  eye  is  unfitted 
to  discern  distinctly  the  colors  of  distant  lights. 

To  ignite  the  signal,  apply  a  lighted  match-rope  or  port- 

6  0? 

re. 

An  intense  light  may  be  made  by  mixing  magnesium   in 

powder,  with  ordinary  pyrotechnic  composition.     Two  or 

three  pounds  of  this  mixture  may  be  fired  at  once  to  attract 

attention — as  of  a  beleaguered  garrison.      Magnesium  may 

be  added  to  any  pyrotechnic  compound. 


The  Signal  Cartridges  of  the  Signal  Corps  of  the  Army, 
prepared  upon  the  principle  of  the  Coston  lights,  are  fitted 
to  be  fired  by  the  explosion  of  the  percussion  cap  upon  a 
signal-pistol.  (Plate  XXIII.)  A  needle-signal  pistol  has 
been  devised.  With  this,  the  light,  properly  prepared,  is 
ignited  by  friction  of  a  needle  driven  by  the  lock,  upon  the 
principle  of  the  "needle-gun."  The  colors  upon  the  cases 
of  these  cai-tridsres  indicate  colors  which  will  be  shown,  and 
the  order  in  which  they  will  he  shown,  upon  the  ignition  of 
the  signal-cartridge.  In  addition  to  this,  the  cartridges  are 
sometimes  marked  with  a  number,  which  number  is  sup- 
posed to  be  indicated  as  often  as  a  cartridge  of  that  kind  is 
fired. 

10 


218  MANUAL   OF    SIGNALS. 

With  the  instructions  preceding  in  this  Manual,  codes  of 
messages  to  he  shown  by  these  lights  can  be  formed  almost 
without  limit. 

N"or  does  it  matter  whether  the  signalist  be  supplied  with 
the  ten  different  kinds  of  lights,  one  for  each  numeral,  or 
with  fewer  sorts. 

Let  it  be  supposed,  for  instance,  that  he  is  allowed  but 
three  sorts — as  red,  white,  and  green.  He  designates  the 
red  as  one,  the  white  as  two,  the  green  as  three;  and  he 
knows  that  to  signal  any  combination  of  ones,  and  twos,  and 
threes,  he  burns  the  proper  lights,  one  after  the  other  rapid- 
ly, until  he  has  shown  those  lights  which  indicate  that  com- 
bination. 

He  has  now  only  to  form  a  code  of  messages  of  which  the 
indices  shall  contain  only  three  elements,  no  matter  how 
great  may  be  the  number  of  places  in  any  index. 

By  referring  to  the  table  of  reference,  page  30,  it  is  found 
that,  with  three  sorts  of  lights  given,  he  can  indicate  nine 
messages,  burning  only  two  cartridges  for  auy  message ;  he 
can  indicate  twenty-seven  messages,  burning  no  more  than 
three  cartridges  for  any  message  ;  he  can  indicate  eighty-one 
messages,  burning  only  four  cartridges  for  any  message  ;  and 
so  on  to  any  desired  extent.  It  is  very  rare,  that  for  any 
purposes  of  temporary  communication,  a  greater  number  of 
messages  than  the  sum  of  all  these  would  be  required. 

If,  to  continue  the  illustration,  the  signalist  is  furnished 
with  four  lights — as  a  red,  a  white,  a  green,  and  a  red-white — 
then  his  code  should  be  constructed,  the  indices  being  the 
arrangements  that  can  be  made  with  four  elements. 

In  this  case,  there  could  be  indicated  sixteen  messages, 
two  cartridges  being  burned  for  each ;  sixty-four  mes- 
sages, three  cartridges  being  burned  for  each  ;  two  hun- 
dred and  fifty-six  messages,  four  cartridges  being  burned  for 
each,  and  one  thousand  and  twenty-four  messages,  five  car- 
tridges being  burned  for  each  ;  and  so  on.     If  the  signalist 


MANUAL  OF   SIGNALS.  219 

was  limited,  as  he  sometimes  might  be,  to  two  sorts  of  car- 
tridges only,  ;is,  say  red  lights  and  white  lights,  it  is  evident 
that,  following  the  same  principles  of  arrangements,  he  could 
still  form  codes  by  which  to  indicate  any  number  of  mes- 
sages. It  will  l>c  necessary  to  burn  a  greater  number  of 
cartridges.  Thus  with  two  sorts  given,  there  could  be 
indicated  four  messages,  burning  two  cartridges  for  each 
message;  eight  messages,  burning  three  cartridges  lor  each 
message  ;  sixteen  messages,  burning  four  cartridges  for  each 
message;  thirty-two  messages,  burning  five  cartridges  for 
each  message;   and  so  on. 

In  preparing  codes  for  messages  to  he  indicated  by  com- 
position lights,  or  cartridges,  it  is  desirable  to  so  arrange 
the  codes  that  all  the  indices  shall  have  the  same,  and  thai  a 
preconcerted  number  of  places, — that  is,  that  all  the  mes- 
sages shall  he  indicated  by  burning  for  each  two  cartridges, 
or  by  burning  for  each  three  cartridges,  or  other  agreed 
number.  It  is  the  object  of  this  rule,  that  the  observer, 
noting  a  signal  made,  may  be  certain,  when  he  has  seen  a 
signal  showing  the  proper  number  of  cart  ridges  burned,  that 
it  is  a  signal  made  by  friends,  that  it  has  been  completed, 
and  that  he  has  seen  the  whole  of  it.  This  lessens  the 
chance  of  error.  For  instance,  suppose  that  it  has  been 
agreed  that  a  code  shall  be  with  indices  of  three  places. 
Now,  if  the  observer  has  a  signal  shown  with  but  two  car- 
tridges burned  in  succession,  he  knows  that  the  signal  is 
either  not  meant  for  him,  or  that  he  has  failed  to  notice  one 
of  the  lights,  or  the  light  has  failed  by  some  accident  to  be 
shown.  He  would  wait  for  the  signal  to  be  perfectly  and 
properly  shown,  or  he  would  signal  for  its  repetition. 

When  the  exact  number  of  cartridges  burning  in  their 
proper  sequence  has  been  shown,  there  is  little  chance  for 
error. 

In  the  preparation  of  codes  for  signals  with  composition 
fires,  there  should  always  be  arranged  "a  preparatory  sig- 


220  MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS. 

nal,"  which  means  :  "  Are  you  ready  ?"  "  Do  you  see  me?" 
and  an  "answering;  signal,"  which  means:  "lam  ready;" 
"I  see  you;"  a  signal  "to  repeat,"  which  means:  "Repeat 
your  last  signal ;  it  is  not  seen,  or  it  is  not  understood;"  and 
a  signal  to  signify  the  correct  receipt  of  the  message,  or 
"  Signals  seen  or  understood."  It  is  a  very  good  plan,  when 
the  messages  to  be  conveyed  are  not  numerous,  for  the 
receiving  station  to  indicate  that  it  has  seen  and  correctly 
understood  the  signals  shown,  by  repeating  in  its  turn  pre- 
cisely those  signals  shown  at  the  sending  station.  The 
sending  station  should  never  fail  to  require  from  the  receiving 
station  the  acknowledgment  that  the  signals  sent  have  been 
seen  and  understood ;  and  the  receiving  station  should  be 
equally  particular  to  promptly  make  such  acknowledgment. 
At  both  stations,  every  article  to  be  used  in  the  transmis- 
sion of  signals  should  be  carefully  inspected,  some  moments 
before  the  time  for  signals,  to  render  certain  that  there 
will  be  no  failure  at  the  moment  of  lighting  ;  that  the  lights 
are  perfect,  caps  good,  and  pistol  clean  and  in  good  order. 
Extra  lights  and  caps  ought  to  be  laid  out,  to  be  used 
instantly  in  case  of  the  failure  of  others.  It  is  well  to  blow 
strongly  into  the  tube  of  the  pistol,  to  clear  it,  after  the 
burning  of  each  cartridge.  In  the  same  way,  precaution 
should  be  taken  to  examine  the  matches,  etc.,  if  the 
cartridges  are  to  be  ignited  by  j>ort-fires.  When  it  is  prac- 
ticable, an  assistant  should  stand  ready,  to  hand  quickly 
extra  cartridges,  caps,  or  other  articles  that  may  be  needed 
while  signals  are  making.  The  time  which  may  be  allowed 
between  the  burning  of  the  separate  cartridges,  from  twenty 
to  forty  seconds,  will  generally  be  ample  for  all  preparation, 
without  any  haste.  The  intervals  of  time  between  the 
burnings  ought  to  be  made  as  nearly  equal  as  is  possible. 
The  signalist,  going  to  the  station,  should  be  provided  with 
extra  lights  and  material,  to  be  used  in  case  of  accident. 
Composition  fires,  of  full  size,  can  be  distinctly  seen,  with  the 


MANUAL   OF  SIGNALS.  221 

naked  eye,  on  nights  ordinarily  clear,  at  distances  varying 
from  six  to  ten  miles.  They  afford  one  of  the  most  conve- 
nient and  rapid  means  for  transmitting  messages  by  pre- 
concert. By  posting  signal  lines  with  the  stations  in  view 
of  each  other,  knowledge  ot*  an  enemy's  movements,  or  other 
information,  may  he  transmitted  over  long  ranges  of  country, 
with  very  great  rapidity  and  an  almost  absolute  certainty. 
Often,  where  the  messages  to  be  transmitted  are  not  numer- 
ous, intelligent  privates,  posted  on  these  stations,  will 
discharge  the  duty  fully  as  well  as  officers,  whose  services 
may  not  be  attainable.  The  instructions  for  their  use  can 
be  made  so  simple  as  to  require  but  little  effort  for  their 
comprehension,  while  the  discharge  of  the  duty  requires 
nothing  but  fidelity  and  watchfulness.  When  lines  of  sta- 
tions are  established,  care  should  be  taken  that  each  station 
be  supplied  with  copies  of  instructions  precisely  alike,  and 
with  exactly  correct  codes  of  signals.  These  instructions 
and  codes,  plainly  written,  should  be  compared  with  each 
other  before  they  are  issued. 

There  must  be  indicated  in  the  code,  with  very  great 
precision  and  fulness  of  explanation,  what  color  of  cartridge 
is  to  be  used  for  each  number,  letter,  or  mark  appearing  in 
the  indices  of  the  code,  and  the  intervals  with  which  they 
are  to  be  fired. 

A  code  may  be  formed,  for  instance,  as  follows : 

EXAMPLE  OF  A  CODE. 


Burn  for  "  Attention" — a  red  light. 

"    —  "  Ready  to  receive" — a  white  light. 

"    —  "  Assent"- — two  green  lights  in  succession. 

"    —  "Repeat" — a  white  light  and  a  green  light. 


222  MANUAL  OF   SIGNALS. 

3Tessage  Signals. 

The  following  colors  stand,  as  often  as  they  are  shown,  for 
the  numbers  opposite  each: 

White — stands  for — 1. 
Red  —  "  —2. 
Green —         "         — 3. 

Intervals  between   lights  to  be  not  more  than  twenty- 
seconds. 

Signal  Lights. 

12.  A  white,  a  red — Enemy  coming  down  the  river. 

21.  A  red,  a  white — Enemy  at  Harper's  Ferry. 

22.  A  red,  a  red — Enemy  advancing. 
11.  A  white,  a  white — Enemy  retiring. 

31.  A  green,  a  white — No  cause  for  alarm. 
33.  A  green,  a  green — All  well. 

32.  A  green,  a  red — .  . .  .Etc.,  etc. 

1 3.  A  red,  a  green — 

Etc.,  etc. 

All  message  signals  consist  of  two  lights  each.     Each 
light  must  be  noted  down  as  it  is  seen. 


CARE  OF  SIGNAL,  APPARATUS. 

The  senior  officer  on  a  station,  or  with  any  party,  is 
primarily  responsible  for  the  condition  of  all  the  apparatus  ; 
and  it  is  his  duty  to  see,  each  day,  that  the  whole  equip- 
ment is  ready  for  instant  service.  Officers  should  be  held 
responsible  with  their  commissions  for  the  proper  discharge 
of  this  duty;  and  each  set  should  be  placed  in  charge 
of  an  enlisted  man,  who  will  be  held  responsible  with  his  pay 


MANUAL  OF   SIGNALS.  223 

for  its  condition ;  precisely  as,  in  the  case  of  other  branches 
ot'tlu'  service,  each  soldier  is  responsible  for  the  proper  con- 
dition of  his  equipments. 

Whenever  particular  sots  of  apparatus  arc  to  be  habitually 
used  for  signals  in  the  field,  that  apparatus  should  be  cared 
for  with  scrupulous  exactness.  Detects  in  the  apparatus  not 
only  annoy  the  signalist  himself,  sending  the  message,  but 
they  more  annoy  the  person  to  whom  messages  are,  for  this 
cause,  imperfectly  sent.  A  courteous  regard  for  the  rights 
of  others  ought,  of  itself,  to  prevent  any  officer  from  thus  in- 
flicting on  another  the  consequences  of  his  own  carelessness. 

Neglect  of  apparatus  is  a  matter  for  discipline.  Daily  in- 
spections should  insure  that  the  telescopes,  etc.,  are  clean 
and  in  perfect  order.  If  the  common  field-sets  of  the  army 
are  to  he  used,  the  torches  must  be  each  morning  cleaned: 
they  can  be  scoured  with  ashes,  or  washed  with  turpentine. 
The  torch-wicks  must  be  examined,  trimmed,  and  renewed. 
They  must  be  made  tighter  by  adding  new  threads  to  them, 
it'  they  seem  too  loose;  and  this  can  be  judged  to  be  the 
ease,  if  there  is  even  a  slight  dropping  of  turpentine:  or 
they  must  be  loosened  by  lessening  their  size,  if  so  tight 
that  the  fluid  cannot  readily  flow  through  them,  to  feed  the 
flame.  The  torch  screws  and  catches  must  be  examined, 
and  the  torches  prepared,  in  every  part,  for  the  labor  of  the 
coming  night.  The  torch  is  not  to  be  filled,  however,  during 
i  he  day.  The  flags  must  be  examined,  each  by  itself.  If 
there  are  rents  or  loosened  ties,  they  must  be  repaired.  If 
the  flag  has  become  soiled  by  usage,  it  must  be  well  washed 
and  dried.  A  clean-washed  flag  is  seen  and  read  with  ease, 
where  Hags  dusty  and  dingy  with  use  are  invisible.  Sig- 
nal-flags in  use  should  be  habitually  washed  eaeli  week. 
The  joints  and  bands  of  the  Staff  must  he  scoured  ami 
tightened  if  loose,  or  carefully  fitted  again  if  any  shifting  or 
springing  ha-  been  noticed.  Rivets  must  he  reclenched,  if 
started.     The  stall'  itself  oughl   to  be  cleaned  and  scraped. 


224  MANUAL  OP  SIGNALS. 

The  copper  cans  and  the  service  canteens  are  to  be  ex- 
amined and  filled.  They  must  be  cleaned  ;  and  if  there  is  a 
leakage,  it  must  be  stopped.  Steps  should  be  taken  to 
turn  into  the  depot  any  article  thus  damaged.  If  the 
leather  in  the  top  screws  of  either  the  canteens  or  cans  is 
worn  or  loosened,  it  must  be  replaced.  The  carrying  straps 
and  buckles  of  the  canvas  case  and  of  the  canteens  must  be 
examined,  and  the  binding-straps  counted,  to  render  certain 
that  none  are  lost.  All  leather  parts  must  be  cleaned,  and 
kept  pliable  with  neatsfoot  or  castor  oil. 

When  the  apparatus  is  to  be  packed,  the  torches  must 
be  perfectly  emptied  of  any  fluid  they  contain,  or  the  flags 
and  other  portions  of  the  set  may  be  ruined  by  its  leak- 
age. 

If  signal-disks  are  used,  it  is  to  be  seen  that  they  are  kept 
perfect  and  clean,  the  handles  well  attached,  and  the  disks 
stored  where  they  will  not  be  damaged. 

Where  there  are  portable  Semaphores,  it  must  be  noted 
that  the  arms  are  not  damaged,  and  that  they  are  well  col- 
ored ;  that  the  ropes  and  pulleys  are  in  good  order,  and 
that  the  joints  work  smoothly. 

Where  sets  of  flags,  as  naval  signal-flags,  are  kept  on 
hand,  they  should  be  overhauled  at  least  once  a  week. 

Lanterns  are  to  be  inspected,  to  see  that  the  glasses  and 
metal  work  are  scrupulously  clean — the  handles  strong  and 
afe — the  sliding  parts  and  springs  in  good  order,  and  that 
no  part  is  loosened  or  in  such  state  as  will  prevent  any  re- 
quired signal  from  being  instantly  shown.  Where  there  is 
a  "  flashing  slide,"  or  other  "  flash  apparatus,"  its  working 
should  be  practically  tested  each  day.  The  lamps  should 
be  carefully  trimmed  before  sunset. 

Especial  attention  must  be  given  to  the  care  of  Pyrotech- 
nic Compositions — Signal  Cartridges,  Composition  Fires, 
Rockets,  Signal  Bombs,  etc. 

These  should  be  carefully  stored  in  waterproof  chests  or 


s 


MANUAL  OF  SIGNALS.  225 

pouches,  and  sedulously  guarded  from  the  moisture  they  are 
so  apt  to  attract  and  absorb. 

They  must  be  aired  and  dried  whenever  there  are  indica- 
tions that  this  is  necessary. 

Whatever  articles  of  this  description  have  been  carried 
by  any  party  going  out  on  temporary  service,  should  be  at 
once  restored  in  the  store-chests  upon  the  return  of  the  party 
to  camp. 

Nor  should  any  such  articles  be  permitted  to  be  out  of 
the  store-chests  in  camp,  unless  for  some  immediate  use. 

They  should  be  at  once  repacked,  when  the  necessity  has 
passed. 

The  officer  in  charge  should  satisfy  himself  of  the  con- 
dition and  storage  of  these  articles  by  personal  inspections. 
And  he  should  see  that  they  are  perfect  or  at  once  repaired, 
that  matches,  fuses,  etc.,  are  in  good  order,  and  the  article 
conditioned  for  immediate  use. 

The  senior  signal-officer  is  further  charged  with  the  duty 
of  keeping  on  hand  at  all  times  supplies  for  general  use — as 
burning-fluid,  wicking,  matches,  spare  sets  of  apparatus, 
telescopes,  cloth  for  flags,  rope,  and  such  other  articles  as 
experience  has  shown  necessary  for  the  best  service  of  his 
party. 


TRANSPORTATION"   OF  APPARATUS. 

A  signal-officer,  mounted,  and  serving  with  troops,  ought 
never  to  permit  himself  to  be,  at  any  time,  without  his 
glasses  and  signal  equipments,  his  compass,  message-book, 
and  map.  No  matter  for  what  purpose  he  is  moving,  or 
how  little  chance  there  may  seem  for  his  particular  duty, 
the  occasion  may,  at  any  instant,  arise  when  the  power  to 
communicate  a  few  sentences  would  be  invaluable.  On 
reconnoissances,  or  when  examining  a  tract   of  country  for 

10* 


226  MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS. 

signal  points  for  stations,  this  precaution  is  to  be  always 
observed.  And  in  such  cases  he  should  have  carried 
by  his  escort,  rockets,  signal-bombs,  etc,  for  Chronosemic 
Signals. 

On  marches,  the  whole  set  of  apparatus,  packed,  may 
sometimes  be  carried  in  an  ambulance.  This  ought  never 
to  be  done,  however,  unless  the  officer  is  dismounted  and 
travelling  in  the  ambulance.  A  set  of  panniers  with  rock- 
ets, bombs,  composition  fire,  etc.,  should  be  carried  in  the 
vehicle. 

The  following  is  a  convenient  way  in  which  to  carry  the 
standard  signal  equipment  on  horseback.  The  large  or 
first  joint  is  taken  from  the  set,  and  is  not  carried:  the 
three  other  joints  of  the  staff,  jointed  together,  are  carried 
like  a  lance,  the  butt  of  the  staff  resting  in  a  lance-socket 
at  the  stirrup;  the  staff  being  carried  on  the  right  side  of 
the  body  of  the  horseman,  mounted,  and  slung  behind  the 
right  arm,  with  the  arm  passing  through  the  leather  strap 
or  lance  sling  which  accompanies  each  set.  Or  they  may 
be  carried  strapped  together  at  the  pommel  of  the  saddle. 
The  torches,  flags,  and  the  remaining  articles  of  the  signal 
set,  neatly  rolled  together,  and  placed  in  the  canvas  case, 
are  strapped  across  the  horse,  either  in  front  of  or  behind 
the  saddle.  This  package  bends  easily  to  fit  itself  to  the 
saddle.  The  canteen  is  carried  on  the  left  side  of  the  horse, 
strapped  close  to  the  saddle,  and  the  bottom  of  the  canteen 
is  strapped  down,  so  that  it  can  have  no  motion.  The 
haversack  is  on  the  right  side  of  the  horse. 

To  carry  a  flag  Hying,  when  mounted,  as  in  changing 
stations,  or  at  any  time  when  it  is  desired  the  progress  of 
the  party  should  be  watched,  attach  the  four-foot  flag  to 
the  staff;  and  have  the  staff  then  carried,  slung  as  a  lance, 
as  described  above;  or  let  it  be  carried  upright,  the  staff 
held  in  the  hand,  and  the  butt  placed  in  the  lance  rest. 

Disks  may  be  carried  tied   together  in  pairs,  face  to  fire, 


PLATE  XXIV 

IV  I 


Transportation  of  Apparatus. 


Fig.  3. 


Prismatic  Compass 


Pockel  Compass 


MANUAL   OF  SIGNALS.  227 

and  fastened  flat  upon  the  Bide  of  the  saddle  or  under  the 
stirrup  strap. 


Lanterns  can  be  carried  in  pouches  arranged  like  saddle- 
Lags,  and  litting  behind  the  saddle.  They  must  be  care- 
fully wrapped,  and  so  tied  in  the  pouch  and  down  upon  the 
saddle  that  they  will  have  no  motion. 


Signal  Bombs,  Rockets,  Composition  Fire,  etc.,  can  be 
carried  in  pouches  behind  the  saddle,  or  in  panniers  upon  a 
pack-animal.  In  either  case  they  must  be  so  packed  and 
bound  that  they  cannot  be  shaken  or  rubbed  together.  A 
dozen  or  more  shells  can  be  carried  in  pouches  behind  the 
saddle.  The  signal-mortar  can  be  strapped  between  the 
pouches. 


Portable  Semaphores  and  the  heavier  parts  of  the  equip- 
m<  nt  and  supplies  must  be  carried  on  wheels. 

Portable  Semaphores  may  be  borne  for  short  distances 
in  the  hands  of  men. 


It  must  be  the  study  of  the  signalist  to  reduce  his  equip- 
ment to  the  smallest  weight  and  bulk,  and  to  tit  it  to  be 
transported  with  the  greatest  rapidity. 

In  the  transportation  of  signal  apparatus  or  supplies,  etc., 
either  on  land  or  on  shipboard,  it  should  be  so  arranged 
thai  easy  access  may  be  had  at  any  time  to  any  of  the  boxes 
or  packages  containing  them. 


228  MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS. 


TELESCOPES,   AND   THEIR  USES. 

The  Telescope  of  the  Signal  Corps  pattern  has  been  de- 
termined by  experience  as  the  best  for  general  uses.  These 
telescopes  are  of  about  thirty  powers.  They  have  a  focal 
length  of  twenty-six  inches.  The  tube  is  cased  in  leather, 
in  place  of  wood  or  metal.  The  draw  is  of  four  joints, 
bronzed  black,  in  order  that  there  may  be  neither  glitter  to 
attract  the  enemy,  nor  glare  to  disturb  the  eye  of  the  ob- 
server. Leather  caps  are  fitted  over  both  eye  and  object 
glasses,  and  the  whole  is  supported  by  a  strong  leather 
strap,  long  enough  to  pass  over  the  shoulder,  and  connect- 
ing the  caps  and  glass  in  such  way  that  there  are  no  loose 
parts.  (Plate  XXIII.)  This  glass  is  strong  and  portable. 
It  has  power  sufficient  for  any  ordinary  use,  and  is  of  a  size 
to  be  conveniently  handled.  It  is  habitually  worn  slung 
over  the  shoulder,  by  the  signal-officer,  wherever  he  may 
be,  in  the  field. 

At  permanent  stations,  the  largest  and  most  powerful 
glasses,  mounted  upon  stands,  and  with  accurate  machinery, 
compasses,  scales,  etc.,  may  be  used. 

The  varieties  of  pocket-glasses  may  be  used  at  distances 
of  from  five  to  ten  miles.  A  glass  known  as  the  carbineer- 
glass  is  not  larger  in  diameter  than  the  finger,  and  may  be 
carried  in  the  vest  pocket. 


Binocular-glasses  (marine-glasses)  have,  with  a  low  mag- 
nifying power,  an  extensive  field  of  view,  and  give  much 
light.  They  are  for  use  in  observation  of  extensive  move- 
ments, where  large  tracts  of  country  must  be  taken  in  one 
field  of  view,  or  in  sweeping  the  landscape  in  view,  to  Hud 
the  tents  of  the  enemy,  his  wagons,  etc.,  or  other  objects  to 
be    afterward   more   closely   examined   with  the  telescope. 


MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS.  229 

They  are  employed  <m  ship-board,  or  in  boats,  where  the 
rolling  motion  interferes  with  the  use  of  the  telescope. 
They  are  used  for  observations  to  be  made  on  horseback, 
or  in  hasty  examinations  made  on  foot  or  in  trees,  and  gen- 
erally for  all  observations  not  critical,  or  those  to  be  made 
under  circumstances  where  the  telescope  cannot  be  con- 
veniently handled.  The  marine-glass  ought  to  be  held  by 
both  hands  when  in  nse ;  and  to  steady  it,  the  arms  ought 
to  be  kept  close  to  the  body.  In  following  a  moving  object, 
to  keep  it  in  the  field  of  view,  the  head  ought  to  be  turned 
with  the  glass.  For  reading  signals  at  short  ranges,  as,  say 
up  to  five  miles,  these  glasses  are  better  than  the  telescope. 
Signals  have  been  frequently  read  with  glasses  of  this  de- 
scription at  the  distance  of  ten  miles. 


Telescopes  ought  never  to  be  allowed  to  fall  into  the  hands 
of  the  enemy.  Officers,  on  dangerous  stations,  should  con- 
ceal their  glasses  when  not  in  use.  When  a  glass  is  to  be 
hidden  for  precaution,  the  object-lens,  or  one  joint  of  the 
telescope,  should  be  hidden  separately  from  the  body  of  the 
telescope.  A  single  joint  or  one  lens  is  so  small  an  object, 
that  it  can  be  concealed  almost  beyond  the  possibility  of 
discovery.  If  an  officer  is  in  danger  of  capture,  and  there 
are  no  means  of  concealment,  the  telescope-glasses  must  be 
shattered  or  rendered  worthless  rather  than  surrendered. 

To  adjust  a  telescope  to  its  proper  focus,  view  with  it 
s<>ine  object  with  well-defined  outlines,  at  a  distance  of  about 
half  a  mile,  lengthening  or  shortening  the  eye-glass  joint 
until  the  object  is  seen  with  the  sharpest  distinctness.  To 
adjust  a  glass  at  night,  fix  it  upon  some  brilliant  star. 

Glasses  which  are  to  be  used  in  the  field,  should  have 
plainly  marked  on  one  of  the  eye-glass  slides  a  focus-mark, 
m>  that  they  may  be  adjusted  at  any  time  without  an  espe- 
cial adjustment  in  every  case. 


230  MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS. 

Telescopes,  the  object-glasses  being  equal  in  size,  diminish 
light,  as  a  general  rule,  in  proportion  as  their  magnifying 
power  is  great.  The  most  powerful  glasses  are,  therefore, 
to  he  used  for  minute  observations  on  the  clearest  days,  or 
when  there  is  a  strong  light  upon  the  observed  object. 
When  the  light  is  fading,  or  there  is  little  light  upon  the 
observed  object,  the  clearer  view  will  be  had  with  glasses 
of  large  field  and  low  magnifying  power.  When  telescopes 
are  fitted  with  a  double  adjusting  focus,  the  short  focus  is 
to  be  used  when  the  light  is  dim,  the  long  focus  when  the 
light  is  strong. 

The  following  is  a  simple  method  by  which  to  estimate 
approximately  the  power  of  a  telescope. 

When  the  object-glass  of  a  horizontally  placed  telescope 
is  turned  toward  the  light,  a  luminous  point  or  spot  appears 
on  the  eye-glass.  The  diameter  of  this  spot  must  be 
carefully  measured.  Measure  then  the  diameter  of  the  ob- 
ject-glass. The  power  of  the  glass  is  that  number  given  as 
quotient  when  the  diameter  of  the  object-glass  is  divided 
by  the  diameter  of  the  luminous  spot.  Thus  if  x  =  diame- 
ter  of  object-glass,   and  y  =  diameter   of  luminous   spot, 

then  Power  =  — . 

y 

A  mode  by  which  to  test  defining  qualities  of  glasses  is, 
to  examine  with  them  lettered  signs  or  printed  letters  at  a 
distance.  Preference  is  given  to  that  glass  by  which  the 
smallest  lettering  is  read  at  the  greatest  distance. 

When  the  atmosphere  is  loaded  with  moisture,  the  object 
and  other  lenses  of  the  telescope  being  cold,  sometimes 
condense  it,  and  become  covered  with  a  thin  film  or  mist ; 
t  his  is  especially  liable  to  happen  at  night.  It  should  always 
be  suspected  when,  while  the  night  seems  clear,  and  lights 
can  be  seen  with  the  naked  eye,  they  are  seen  with  difficulty 
through  the  glass.  To  remedy  this,  the  glass  ought  to  be 
thoroughly  warmed   at   a   fire  or  with   :i  lamp — care  being 


MANUAL  OF  SIGNALS.  231 

taken  thai  it  is  n< >t  ovei'heated-  and  made  so  warm  as  to 
retain  its  heat  while  it   is  being  used  to  receive  messages. 

The  eye-glass  of  the  telescope  is  sometimes  obscured  by 
the  moisture  of  the  breath  condensing  upon  it  while  the 
eye  is  at  the  glass;  this  ought  to  be  carefully  guarded 
against. 

Old  newspapers  furnish  the  best  material  with  which  to 
clean  lenses.  The  pieces  to  be  selected  should  be  free  from 
grit  or  any  thing  to  scratch  the  glass.  Soft  paper  is  better 
than  chamois-skin.  The  telescope  glasses  ought  to  be  kept 
scrupulously  clean. 

If  the  telescope  is  to  be  carried  in  the  rain,  a  leather  cap 
must  always  cover  the  eye-piece  end.  Without  this  pre- 
caution, the  glass  will  be  filled  with  water,  and  may  be 
ruined. 

It  should  be  practised  to  use  both  eyes  open  at  the  tele- 
scope. This  can  be  readily  done.  The  method  is  more 
comfortable  than  to  use  but  one  eye,  and  by  it  is  prevented 
much  of  that  wreariness  and  injury  to  the  eyes  that  often 
follow  if  they  are  overstrained,  or  too  much  labor  is  thrown 
upon  them. 

When  reading  messages  through  the  telescope,  or  observ- 
ing any  object  intently  in  bad  weather,  cover  the  head  with 
a  blanket,  or  the  cape  of  an  overcoat,  or  any  dark  covering, 
extending  this  covering  over  all  the  telescope  except  the 
object-glass:  particularly  do  this  when  exposed  to  a  daz- 
zling light,  or  the  sun's  heat,  or  in  windy  weather.  The 
covering  shuts  out  from  view  all  objects  near  the  observer, 
and  thus  enables  the  faculties  to  be  concentrated;  and,  at 
the  same  time,  it  protects  the  eye  from  the  disturbing  light, 
the  winds,  particles  floating  in  the  air,  etc. 

To  find  any  small  object,  as  a  signalman  or  flag  near  any 
known  position,  or  to  fix  the  telescope  upon  it,  mark,  with 
the  naked  eye,  some  prominent  landmark,  or  object  near 
which  the  smaller  object  is  supposed    to    be,  place    the    tele- 


232  MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS. 

scope  carefully  adjusted  in  rest,  then  sight  over  the  glass 
upon  the  marking  object,  as  sight  is  taken  over  a  gun-bar- 
rel ;  if  the  eye,  the  object  being  thus  covered,  is  now  placed 
at  the  eye-glass  of  the  telescope,  the  prominent  or  marking 
object  will  be  found  in  the  field  of  view.  It  will  be  easy 
then  to  scan  the  country  near  the  marker  until  the  smaller 
object  is  found.  This  practice  is  often  necessary  at  night, 
when  only  a  point  of  light  is  seen,  far  off"  through  the  dark- 
ness, and  the  telescope  must  be  turned  upon  it.  When  the 
compass-bearing  of  the  object  to  be  sought  for  is  known, 
the  telescope,  adjusted  and  placed  in  rest,  may  be  aligned 
by  a  line  drawn  with  the  proper  compass-bearing.  Com- 
mencing then  with  the  view  at  the  horizon,  the  telescope  is 
moved  slightly  from  side  to  side,  taking  in,  each  time,  fresh 
fields  of  view  a  little  nearer  the  observer,  until  the  whole 
country  shall  have  been  observed  from  the  horizon  to  quite 
near  the  station.  When  the  general  direction  only  of  an 
object  can  be  given,  and  it  is  to  be  sought  for,  the  whole 
landscape  in  that  direction  to  the  horizon  is  to  be  divided 
into  section^  by  imaginary  lines,  the  limits  of  these  sections 
being  bounded  between  visible  landmarks  through  which 
the  bounding  lines  are  supposed  to  pass.  Each  section  is 
then  to  be  scrutinized,  little  by  little,  until  the  glass  has 
been  passed  over  every  spot.  The  search  can  hardly  fail  to 
be  successful.     It  must  be  systematic. 

Practice  should  be  had  in  the  use  of  the  telescope,  held 
in  the  hands  without  rest,  in  rapidly  bringing  objects  in  the 
held  of  view,  and  in  the  habit  of  examining  an  object  or 
point  thoroughly,  yet  quickly.  Observations  can  often  be 
made  with  such  rests  as  the  shoulder  of  a  man,  over  the 
back  of  a  saddled  horse,  or  with  a  cane  resting  on  the 
ground  and  held  in  the  hand  that  steadies  the  telescope. 
Very  great  quickness  in  the  bringing  of  objects  within  the 
field  of  view  can  be  soon  acquired.  The  eye  becomes  edu- 
cated to  a  remarkable  keenness  of  vision  by  continued  prac- 


MANUAL  OF   SIGNALS.  '2."!:} 

tice.  When  observations  are  made  with  the  telescope,  or 
when  messages  are  being  received  by  it  by  signals,  nothing 
must  be  taken  for  granted,  and  nothing  considered  as 
seen,  until  it  has  been  positively  in  view,  and  so  clearly 
as  not  to  admit  of  doubt.  Never  presume  to  anticipate 
what  signals  will  follow  from  those  already  made.  A  signal 
must  never  be  considered  or  announced  as  read  until  it 
has  been  actually  seen.  Carefully  watch  the  communicat- 
ing station  until  the  last  signals  are  made,  and  be  very  cer- 
tain, before  ceasing  to  watch,  that  the  signal  for  the  end  of 
a  message  has  been  distinctly  given. 

The  officers  at  each  signal-station  must  take  care  that  a 
lookout,  through  the  glass,  is  kept  at  each  station  so  con- 
stantly that  no  signal  can  be  shown,  at  any  time,  at  the 
communicating  station,  for  more  than  two  minutes  without 
receiving  an  answer.  For  this  reason,  when  not  at  the  glass 
himself,  he  will  cause  his  men,  or  any  one  on  duty  at  the 
station,  to  keep  a  regular  "glass-watch,"  assigning  the  men 
by  turns,  and  fixing  particular  hours  for  each,  that  responsi- 
bility for  neglect  may  be  easily  traced.  These  details  will 
relieve  each  other  every  two  or  four  hours,  day  and  night. 
The  watchman  on  duty  must  be  seated  at  the  glass;  and 
before  assuming  his  station  must,  with  the  aid  of  the  soldier 
last  on  duty,  make  certain  that  he  knows  the  exact  position 
of  the  observed  station,  and  that  it  is  plainly  in  the  field  of 
the  glass.  This  precaution  is  particularly  necessary  at  night, 
when  the  least  movement  of  the  glass  may  have  thrown  the 
station  out  of  view.  All  landmarks  being  then  invisible, 
there  is  nothing  by  which  to  detect  the  error;  and  sig- 
nals may  be  long  shown  in  vain  at  one  station,  while  the 
glass,  not  bearing  upon  them,  is  attentively  watched  at  the 
other. 

"When  a  signal  station  is  to  communicate  with  two  or 
more  stations,  a  telescope  should  be  firmly  fixed  hearing 
on  each,  and  so  far  a]  art,  that  the  reader  at  one  will  not  he 


234  MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS. 

in  danger  of  disturbing  the  reader  at  the  other  by  his  move- 
ments. At  permanent  stations,  the  fixed  telescopes  should 
not  be  removed  from  their  supports  when  signalling  has 
ceased  for  a  time,  unless  it  may  be  necessary  to  clean  them  ; 
but  they  should  be  kept  in  position  carefully  covered,  to 
protect  them  from  the  weather. 

If,  for  any  reasons,  telescopes  have  not  been  fixed  bearing 
on  the  communicating  stations  during  the  day,  or  have  been 
moved  from  their  stands,  they  must  be  returned  and  ad- 
justed before  dark.  After  dark  landmarks  are  lost  to  view, 
and  distant  stations  are  discovered  with  difficulty.  The  glass 
must  have  in  its  field  the  exact  point  at  which  night-signals 
are  to  appear,  and  must  so  remain,  properly  sheltered,  until 
morning.  The  neglect  of  this  care  often  causes  much 
trouble. 

The  telescope  should  always,  when  possible,  be  first  placed 
in  rest  and  properly  adjusted  in  some  sheltered  or  shaded 
position,  and  in  one  as  convenient  as  is  attainable,  before 
communication  by  signals,  either  in  the  day  or  at  night,  is 
opened  ;  for,  after  communication  is  opened,  important  mes- 
sages may  come  so  rapidly,  that  the  glass  cannot  be  aban- 
doned, and  the  station  must  be  worked  for  hours  with  much 
of  discomfort,  and  even  of  suffering,  on  the  part  of  the  read- 
ing officer. 

The  glass-stand  or  support  may  be  a  heap  of  stones,  two 
saddles  lashed  together,  a  temporary  tripod  of  sticks,  a  post, 
a  stump,  fence,  anything  furnishing  a  steady  rest.  Blankets, 
thickly  folded,  or  any  cloth,  as  an  overcoat,  a  cushion,  or  a 
pillow,  placed  under  the  glass,  almost  entirely  prevents  vi- 
bration. Stones,  or  other  heavy  bodies,  ought  to  be  placed 
on  and  about  the  glass,  in  order  to  secure  it  in  its  place  and 
to  steady  it.  The  brass  telescope-holder,  fitted  to  screw 
into  trees  or  other  wooden  supports,  is  very  useful.  Trees, 
having  branches  and  leaves,  are  apt  to  be  shaken  by  the 
wind;  for  this  reason,  a  fence  corner,  a  stump,  or  solitary 


PI  ATE  XKV 


Object  viewed  through 
a  scale  glass. 


ng.  3. 


Telescope  rest  to  use  one  Telescope 
for  observing  several  points. 


Fig.  5. 


Telescope  Rest  for  use  in  the  field 


F^g.4. 


Telescope  resting  upon  a  folded  blanket 
alia  weighted  to  secure  steadiness. 


Plan  of  Permanent  Station  on  a  house 
or  tower. 


MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS.  235 

posl  or  rock  should  be  chosen  in  preference.  It  is  impor- 
tant so  to  construct  a  support,  as  to  allow  the  person  at  the 
glass  a  comfortable  position  while  reading,  and  it  should  be 
firm  enough  to  withstand  any  ordinary  gust  of  wind,  or 
other  alight  distui'bing  cause.  At  a  post  or  fixed  station,  it 
is  well  to  construct  a  permanent  glass-stand,  and  to  shelter 
it  with  a  good  tent  or  sentry-box. 

The  plate  exhibits  plans  tor  glass-stands.      (Plate  XXV, 
Figs.  2,  3,  4,  and  5.) 


SCALE    GLASSES. 

Telescopes  may  be  prepared  as  scale-glasses  for  estimat- 
ing distances,  without  in  any  way  impairing  their  usefulness 
for  other  purposes.  A  micrometer  scale,  the  distances  be- 
tween the  lines  of  which  have  been  carefully  estimated,  is 
engraved  on  an  additional  glass  so  fitted  that  it  can  be 
placed  within  or  removed  from  the  tube  of  the  telescope  at 
the  option  of  the  observer.  When  this  glass,  so  engraved,  is 
adjusted  in  the  focus  of  one  of  the  lenses,  it  becomes  visible 
to  the  eye  of  the  observer  placed  at  the  eye-piece,  while 
there  is  at  the  same  time  had,  in  the  field  of  view,  the  object 
it  is  desired  to  view,  and  the  distance  which  is  to  be  esti- 
mated. The  principle  upon  which  the  scale  is  formed  is, 
that  the  angle  subtended  bv  the  rays  from  anv  object  meet- 
ing  at  the  eye  is  in  exact  proportion,  greater  or  less,  as  the 
object  is  near  or  remote.  The  distance  being  known  at 
which  a  certain  visual  angle  is  subtended  by  any  object 
of  known  height,  the  distance  at  which  that  object  is,  its 
location  being  changed,  may  be  estimated  by  the  measure- 
ment of  the  increased  or  diminished  angle  it  then  subtends. 
The  height  of  a  man — or  five  feet  six  inches — is  generally 
assumed  as  the  unit  of  measurement.  Upon  the  engraved 
seale  before  mentioned,  one  line  is  marked  as  the  base  line. 
At  right  angles  to  and  joining  this  Line  is  a  smaller  line,  by 


236  MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS. 

which  the  base  may  be  distinguished  from  other  Hues.  Other 
lines,  more  or  less  in  number,  appear  engraved  parallel  to 
and  above  the  base-line,  at  distances  carefully  estimated. 
The  field  of  the  telescope,  the  scale  being  adjusted,  appears 
as  in  Plate  XXV,  Fig.  1. 

For  measurement,  the  telescope  is  adjusted  until  the  feet 
of  the  man  to  be  viewed  through  it,  or  the  base  of  any  ob- 
ject, if  something  inanimate  has  been  selected,  are  brought 
in  the  field  of  view  to  apparently  rest  with  precision  upon 
the  base-line.  The  first  line  upon  the  scale  above  the  base- 
line then  marks  the  point  upon  the  glass  to  which  the  head 
of  the  man  thus  viewed  should  seem  to  reach,  if  he  is  distant, 
say  five  miles.  Now,  if  the  man  is  at  a  less  distance,  his 
figure  will  seem  to  cover  a  greater  space,  and  his  head  reach 
higher  upon  the  glass  ;  so  the  second  line  on  the  scale  above 
the  base  may  indicate  the  point  his  head  will  seem  to  reach 
if  he  is  distant  four  miles.  The  next  line  above  may  be  the 
scale-point,  if  he  is  distant  three  miles ;  the  next,  if  distant 
but  two  miles ;  and  the  next,  when  he  is  one  mile  distant. 
The  intervals  between  the  lines  may  be  graduated  into 
smaller  intervals.  And  there  may  be  a  scale  by  which  to 
measure  fractional  parts  of  a  mile,  as  hundreds  of  yards,  etc. 
With  proper  care,  distances  may  be  in  this  way  very  fairly 
estimated. 

To  use  "  scale-glasses"  successfully,  the  telescope  must  be 
perfectly  at  rest.  The  slightest  tremor  interferes  with  the 
accuracy  of  the  estimate.  An  additional  difficulty  is  found 
in  the  fact  that,  at  great  distances,  the  finest  scale-lines  cover 
too  much  of  the  viewed  object.  These  difficulties  can  be 
lessened  by  practice  only,  and  the  thus  acquired  skill  in  using 
the  glass.  Very  useful  approximations  to  exact  distance 
can,  however,  be  easily  made. 

Glasses  of  high  magnifying  power  have  been  scaled  in  this 
way  to  determine  considerable  measurements,  as  to  estimate 
bv  the  height  of  a  man  at  ten  miles  distance. 


MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS.  237 

These  scales  may  be  used  to  measure  the  face  of  a  work — 
to  determine  its  height  and  its  distance;  the  distance  of 
batteries,  ships,  etc.,  and  of  marked  points  on  the  field  of 
battle;  or  the  distances  at  which  bodies  of  troops  are  mov- 
ing. The  width  of  rivers  can  be  determined.  The  range  of 
objects  at  which  artillery  is  to  fire  can  be  had,  so  as  to  fix  the 
proper  elevations  and  the  length  of  fuses.  Lines  for  rough 
surveys  may  be  run.  Distances  may  be  measured  for  maps. 
There  may  be  had  many  other  estimates,  the  utility  of  which 
will  suggest  themselves  to  an  educated  officer. 


POCKET  COMPASSES. 

The  pocket  compasses  used  by  signal-officers,  are  lettered 
after  the  plan  of  a  surveyor's  compass.  The  compass  should 
have  fixed  upon  its  case-edge,  opposite  the  "N,"  and  also 
opposite  the  "  S"  marks,  a  small  notch  or  sight,  by  which 
to  take  the  l'ange  of  any  observed  object. 

It  is  generally  the  aim  of  the  observing  officer  to  give 
the  compass-bearing  of  any  object  observed,  taken  from 
that  point  at  which  he  is  stationed.  To  use  the  compass, 
the  North  and  South  sights  on  the  case-edge  or  on  the  com- 
pass-dial are  brought  to  exactly  coincide  with  the  N.  and 
S.  points  of  the  needle  when  at  rest ;  then  the  object  to  be 
viewed  is  sighted  at  over  the  North  sisjht  through  the 
South  sight,  if  the  object  be  southerly,  or  over  the  South 
sight  through  the  North  sight  if  it  be  northerly  from  the 
position  of  the  observer.  This  done,  the  bearing  is  that 
reading  of  the  compass-card  which  will  appear  directly  un- 
der the  "N"  or  the  "S"  pole  or  point  of  the  needle,  as  the 
case  may  be.  Practice  should  be  had  in  the  use  of  the 
compass  before  the  officer  is  expected  to  take  the  field. 
The  practice  can  be  had  simultaneously  with  that  of  the 
telescope,  by  requiring  the  student  to  find,  with  the  telescope, 


238  MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS. 

stations  in  different  directions,  the  compass-bearings  only 
being  given  ;  and  also  to  report  the  bearings  of  different 
named  objects,  visible  at  the  place  from  which  he  is  prac- 
tising.    (Plate  XXIV,  Fig.  3.) 


PRISMATIC   COMPASS. 

When  especial  accuracy  is  required  the  Prismatic  Com- 
pass may  be  used. 

In  addition  to  the  ordinary  lettering  of  this  compass,  the 
card  should  show  the  lettering  of  the  common  .surveyor's 
compass  (Plate  XXIV,  Fig.  2)  ;  that  is,  with  the  westerly 
readings  to  the  right  of  the  North  point,  the  card  being  at 
rest,  and  the  easterly  readings  on  its  left. 

This  compass  is  fitted  with  a  prism-sight  through  which 
the  sight  is  taken,  and  a  sight-vane,  the  vertical  hair  in 
which  is,  when  the  compass  is  used,  to  be  brought  to  bear 
upon  the  object  of  which  the  bearing  is  to  be  had.  For 
the  purpose  of  taking  this  sight  both  the  prism-sight  and 
sight-vane  must  be  raised  upon  their  hinges  to  be  perpen- 
dicular as  to  the  surface  of  the  compass.  The  eye  then 
placed  at  the  prism-glass  will  have  in  the  field  of  view  at 
once,  the  object  to  be  viewed,  the  hair  of  the  sight-vane 
bearing  upon  it,  and,  below  iipon  the  compass-card  the 
direction  and  degrees  of  the  bearing— -which  are  read  with- 
out  removing  the  eye  from  the  prism.  "When  there  is 
trouble  from  the  oscillation  of  the  compass-card,  its  move- 
ment may  be  checked  by  touching  the  card-spring,  which 
is  found  on  the  side  of  the  compass. 


MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS.  239 


INSTRUCTION  IN  SIGNALLING. 

Experience  has  shown  that  as,  in  the  Manual  of  Arms,  the 
soldier  must  be  continually  drilled  to  maintain  his  full  effi- 
ciency, so  in  the  practice  of  signalling,  a  drill,  regular  and 
habitual,  is  needed  to  tit  cither  officer  or  man  for  the  duty 
in  the  liist  place,  and  then  to  retain  them  with  that  skill 
which  is  needed  in  the  moment  of  danger  and  of  actual  war. 

The  instruction  should  commence  with  the  study  of  the 
principles  of  signalling,  and  the  theories  of  their  general  use. 
The  pupil  should  be  well  grounded  in  this  study  before 
practice  is  entered  upon.  lie  should  then  be  required  to 
commit  to  memory  certain  signal  alphabets  to  be  used  ; 
and  these  are  to  be  so  thoroughly  memorized  that  no  signal 
combination  will  require  thought  to  determine  its  meaning. 
The  General  Service  Flag  and  nomographic  Codes  arc  to  be 
committed  in  this  manner.  To  this  follows  practice  in  the 
recitation-room  with  the  "wand,"  a  slender  rod  about 
eighteen  inches  long, — the  class  reading  messages  signalled 
by  the  instructor  in  the  alphabets  learned,  by  rapid  move- 
ments of  the  wand;  or  practising  in  couples,  transmitting 
messages  with  the  wand  to  each  other  during  the  hours  set 
aside  for  study,  until  each  is  able  to  read  messages  of  what- 
i\  er  character  signalled  with  the  greatest  rapidity  of  motion 
that  can  be  given.  (Plate  XXIII.)  And  in  this  portion  of 
the  course  should  be  included  practice  with  codes  of  different 
numbei-s  of  elements,  and  signalled  by  different  modes  of 
position  or  of  motion,  until  the  pupil  is  well  accustomed  to 
rapidly  read  and  make  the  signals.  He  is  practised  also  in 
rapidly  repeating  signals  as  they  are  made  to  him,  both  ac- 
cording to  the  plans  given  for  returning  signals  to  the  send- 
in  u"  station,  and  for  transmitting  them  as  in  a  line  of  stations: 
and  very  thoroughly  in  sending  and  receiving  messages  bv 
Bignals  in  cipher,  using  the  cipher-disk,  and  working  much 


210  MANUAL   OF    SIGNALS. 

more  rapidly  than  can  be  possible  in  the  field.  In  propor- 
tion as  this  drill  of  the  eye  and  mind  is  thorough,  will  be 
the  consequent  skill  of  the  student. 

The  second  part  of  the  course  embraces  Field  Practice, 
with  the  regulation  signal  equipment,  and  with  telescopes. 
The  pupil  should  be  first  instructed  in  the  uses  of  the  differ- 
ent articles  of  the  equipment,  and  should  be  required  to 
practically  understand  them,  the  class  being  well  drilled  by 
the  instructor  to  take  the  proper  positions  for  day  and  night 
signals ;  to  make  the  appropriate  motions  and  positions  of 
flags  and  disks  upon  the  word  of  order ;  to  pack  and  unpack 
the  equipments ;  to  carry  them  from  place  to  place  ;  to 
change  from  day  to  night  signals,  and  the  reverse,  and  in  all 
the  duties  of  the  flagman.  They  are  then  divided  into  sets 
by  fours,  and  are  stationed  by  twos  upon  separate  signal- 
stations,  each  pupil  serving  in  his  turn  as  flagman  and  as  sig- 
nalist.  They  are  here  required  to  send  messages  at  short  dis- 
tances, until  the  instructoris  satisfied  that  they  perfectly  com- 
prehend the  duties  they  will  afterward  require  from  others. 
They  repeat  signals  in  all  styles  of  repetition,  and  they  sig- 
nal messages  in  cipher,  until  by  practice  they  so  send  and 
receive  them  with  ease.  In  this  part  of  the  course  is  to  be 
given  a  knowledge  of  the  telescope,  the  pupil  being  required 
to  explain  its  structure  ;  to  separate  it  into  pieces,  removing 
all  the  lenses  ;  to  clean  and  refit  it ;  to  adjust  it  by  night  as 
well  as  in  the  day,  on  objects  near  or  remote;  to  examine 
with  it  and  report  minutely  upon  objects  at  a  distance,  as  by 
the  reading  of  lettered  signs,  the  recognizing  of  shapes  and 
colors  of  flags,  etc., — this  practice  being  in  the  presence  of 
the  instructor.  They  are  required  to  make  cipher-disks  for 
themselves,  and  to  devise  plans  of  cipher  in  which  they  will 
communicate.  They  are  to  be  taught  to  correspond  in 
cryptograms.  The  class  is  now  instructed  in  the  use  of  the 
compass  ;  in  the  use  of  graduated  (scaled)  telescopes,  with 
which  they  are  required  to  estimate  and  report  the  distance 


MANUAL   OF    SIGNALS.  241 

of  objects  seen  ;  and  in  forming  rough  maps  to  accompany 
reports. 

With  this  preparation  the  class  may  be  ordered  for  station 
practice  on  stations  distant  some  miles  apart.  These  sta- 
tions are  to  be  selected  for  them.  The  pupils  are  to  be  sta- 
tioned by  twos,  required  to  open  and  keep  up  communication 
between  these  stations  by  signals,  day  and  night ;  to  person- 
ally use  their  flags,  torches,  and  other  signal  equipments;  to 
take  care  of  their  telescopes,  and  in  relieving  each  other  in 
turn  ;  to  discharge  all  the  duties  of  officers  and  flagmen  upon 
a  station  ;  to  keep  a  record  of  messages  sent  and  received,  and 
to  report  them.  At  times,  when  they  are  not  on  duty,  they 
commit  lessons  in  such  elementary  works  as  familiarize  them 
with  military  nomenclature  and  description,  and  they  will 
prepare  descriptive  statements  of  works,  cities,  harbors,  or 
forces  indicated  by  the  instructor.  They  must  make  written 
reports  of  information  in  form,  as  if  they  were  reporting  to 
a  commander  in  the  field.  The  class  will  then  be  distributed 
to  different  stations,  which  they  must  find,  and  establish 
themselves.  They  are  then  required  to  communicate  with 
signals  of  different  character,  as  signals  by  colored  flames, 
rocket  signals,  chronosemic  signals,  signals  by  sound,  by 
lines  of  signals,  by  simple  semaphores,  by  flags  after  the 
manner  of  navies.  On  certain  days,  all  messages  sent  must 
be  in  cipher,  and  all  must  be  repeated.  The  officers  are  to 
be  especially  practised  in  opening  and  maintaining  com- 
munication without  preconcert,  and  to  do  this  using  differ- 
ent codes.  They  will  be  taught  to  rapidly  break  u\>  their 
stations  and  to  establish,  them  elsewhere;  to  search  with 
their  glasses  for,  and  to  find,  other  stations  moved  in  the 
same  way  to  new  localities;  and  are  to  be  practised,  under 
the  charge  of  the  instructor,  to  meet  the  different  emergen- 
that  may  occur  in  the  field. 

The  instructor,  acting  as  superintendent  of  all  the  sta- 
tions,  inspects    each    and    notes   the   manner  in    which   the 

11 


242  MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS. 

duties  are  performed.  This  practice  in  the  field  is  con- 
tinued until  the  pupils  are  "considered  competent  for  actual 
service. 

Whenever  the  corps  is  equipped  with  light  telegraphic 
lines  for  field  use,  the  officers  and  men  should  be  taught  the 
principles  of  electric  telegraphs,  and  practised  in  the  use  of 
the  different  instruments,  either  with  alphabets  or  with  sim- 
ple codes  of  two  or  three  elements.  They  should  be  drilled 
in  the  rapid  extension  of  the  wire-lines,  and  quickly  reeling 
them  up  and  putting  them  in  motion  to  be  established  else- 
where. They  should  thoroughly  understand  the  modes  of 
erecting  them  through  forests,  on  pontoon-bridges,  to  the 
tops  of  towers,  or  of  submerging  them  to  cross  narrow  rivers 
or  streams.  The  parties  should  be  told  off  for  this  purpose 
by  regular  detail,  and  should  be  practically  taught  the  dif- 
ferent duties  with  such  lines,  as  engineers  are  instructed,  in 
all  the  labors  of  laying  pontoon-bridges  or  constructing 
earthworks. 

When,  as  in  the  war  just  passed,  it  is  necessary  to  gather 
the  class  for  instruction  in  a  camp,  or  when  its  members 
have  had  no  previous  military  knowledge,  they  are  in- 
structed, in  the  time  not  given  to  recitations  or  to  practice, 
in  the  discipline  and  management  of  the  men,  the  drill  of 
cavalry  with  the  carbine,  and  the  rules  of  encampment  and 
of  scouting. 

This  tuition,  the  study  of  works  of  reconnoissance,  and  such 
other  studies  as  may  best  fit  them  for  the  duties  of  observa- 
tion, are  continued  whenever  time  offers  throughout  the 
course.  Particular  readings  are  assigned  for  those  times 
when  the  students,  being  upon  stations,  are  not  immediately 
employed.  The  instruction  to  be  given  non-commissioned 
officers  and  enlisted  men  must  be  determined  by  their  indi- 
vidual acquirements. 


MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS.  '21.'! 

The  course  of  study  and  practice  here  indicated  should  be 
pursued,  both  in  the  land  and  naval  service;  for,  serving  in 
either,  the  skill  and  knowledge  gained  cannot  fail  to  be  of 
value  to  both  officers  and  men.  The  naval  officer  should, 
equally  with  the  officer  of  the  army,  be  able  to  direct  the 
establishment  of  stations,  on  ship  or  on  shore,  and  should 
know  what  benefits  might  be  expected  from  them. 

Soldiers  of  the  Signal  Corps  should  be  drilled  as  cavalry, 
taught  the  use  of  the  repeating  carbine,  and  practised  in 
climbing,  in  riding,  and  in  marching.  They  serve  so  much 
in  small  and  isolated  parties,  that  they  need  the  repeating 
arm.  They  should  be  encouraged  in  gymnastic  exercises. 
Their  duties,  ascending  mountains,  establishing  stations, 
etc.,  require  the  fullest  physical  development. 


SELECTING,   ESTABLISHING,   AND    WORKING 
STATIONS   IN   THE  EIELD. 

The  signals  used  in  the  field,  in  the  Army  of  the  United 
States,  are  almost  always  those  made  with  flags  in  motion, 
and  the  regulation  signal  equipment,  as.  for  the  General  Ser- 
vice Code,  by  two  elements. 

These  signals  are  so  simply  and  so  rapidly  made,  and  are 
legible  at  distances  so  great,  that  others  are  rarely  needed 
in  general  service. 

Signals  with  disks,  though  not  visible  at  great  distances, 
can  be  used  when  circumstances  require.  Any  of  the  modes 
before  described  are  to  be  employed  when  need  be. 

The  occasions  for  these  offer  in  communication  between 
land  and  naval  forces;  and  in  emergencies,  as  when  there 
is  need  of  concealment.  A  station  of  observation  is  one 
from  which  observations,  as  of  an  enemy  or  of  a  tract  of 
country,  are  made  and  reported.     A  station  of  communica- 


2i4  MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS. 

tion  is  for  purposes  of  signal  communication.     A  signal- 
station  may  partake  of  both  characters. 

To  select  a  signal-station,  choose  a  point  perfectly  in  view 
of  the  communicating  station;  fix  the  exact  position  in 
which  the  flagman  is  to  stand :  so  arrange,  if  possible,  that 
he  will  have  behind  him,  when  viewed  from  the  communi- 
cating station,  a  background  of  the  same  color  for  every 
position  in  which  the  signals  may  be  shown.  The  color  of 
the  background  of  a  station  is  that  of  the  earth  or  sky, 
against  which  the  signals  made  seem  to  be  displayed  when 
viewed  from  the  communicating  station.  To  determine  the 
color  of  the  background,  take  the  direction  of  the  commu- 
nicating  station,  and,  going  in  front  of  your  station,  examine 
the  position  from  that  direction ;  ascertain  whether  the 
communicating  station  is  higher,  lower,  or  on  a  level  with 
your  own.  If  it  is  higher,  the  background  for  your  signals, 
viewed  thence,  will  be  the  color  of  the  fields,  woods,  etc., 
behind  and  lower  than  your  flagman.  If  it  is  lower,  your 
background  will  be  the  color  of  grounds,  etc.,  behind  and 
lying  higher  than  your  flagman.  If  the  stations  are  of  equal 
elevation,  then  the  background  for  your  signals  will  be  that 
directly  behind  the  flagman.  Do  not  presume  the  back- 
ground is  of  the  color  of  the  fields  near  you.  It  may  be 
that  of  the  woods,  a  long  distance,  sometimes  miles,  behind 
your  station.  If  your  station  is  on  a  house  or  an  eminence, 
it  is  still  very  possible  that  there  are  higher  grounds  some- 
where behind  it.  The  color  of  backgrounds  is  generally 
dark.  Sky-exposure  backgrounds  are  rare.  They  are  not 
often  found  at  long  ranges  on  land.  They  cannot  be  had 
except  on  the  exact  crest  of  ridges  or  lands  which  bound 
the  horizon  of  view  from  the  other  station,  or  on  the  precise 
apex  of  mountains,  etc.  At  short  ranges,  they  may,  of 
course,  be  had  by  working  on  the  tops  of  very  high  build- 
ings, steeples,  etc.  Unless  certain  of  the.  color  of  the  back- 
ground, it  is  safe  to  presume  it  is  not  the  sky,  and  that  it 


MANUAL  OF   SIGNALS.  24:5 

is  not  light.     It  is  a  rule  always  to  use  the  white  or  red 
flas  until  the  color  of  the  background  is  determined.     The 

best   backgrounds  are  darkly  colored,  as  green   fields  or 
woods. 

Place  the  flagman  so  that  his  signals  shall  appear  dis- 
played upon  one  of  these  backgrounds,  if  possible. 

If  the  position  is  narrow,  and  the  flagman  can  be  placed 
in  no  other,  notice  whether  the  background  is  broken: 
that  is,  whether  in  part  of  its  motion  the  flag  or  other 
signal  displays  on  light  and  in  part  on  dark  ground;  as  if, 
for  instance,  for  half  its  motion  it  shows  against  the  trees, 
and  for  the  other  half  against  a  white  house  ;  or  if,  for  part 
of  the  motion,  it  shows  against  the  sky,  and  for  the  rest, 
against  trees. 

The  background  being  determined,  the  choice  of  flags  is 
fixed.  '  The  color  of  the  flag  must  contrast  as  strongly  as 
possible  with  that  of  the  background.  Upon  this  contrast 
the  legibility  of  the  signals  often  depends. 

With  green  or  dark,  or  any  earth-colored  backgrounds, 
the  white  flag  must  be  used.  With  a  sky-exposure,  the 
black  flag;  must  be  used.  With  broken  or  mixed  back- 
grounds,  the  red  flag  must  be  used.  The  red  flag,  or  signal, 
is  that  to  be  generally  used  at  sea, — as  on  vessels,  where, 
in  part  of  its  motion,  the  flag  exposes  against  the  wood- 
work, or  rigging,  or  sails  of  the  vessel ;  and  in  part  against 
the  sky  or  water.  It  is  well  also  to  try  the  red  flag  when 
snow  may  form  part  of  the  background.  For  general  uses, 
the  white  flag,  or  signal,  will  be  found  best.  It  can  be  used 
in  nine  instances  out  of  ten. 

When  the  stations  have  commenced  communicating,  each 
may  announce  that  color  of  the  flags,  or  other  signals,  which 
can  be  best  seen  at  the  other.  This  may  be  done  as  soon 
as  communication  has  commenced,  each  station  telling  the 
other  to  use  the  white,  or  the  red,  or  the  black  flag,  or  to 
try  different  flags,  until  the  best  is  found. 


246  MANUAL  OF   SIGNALS. 

When  it  is  difficult  to  attract  attention,  two  flans  ouo-ht 
to  he  shown  on  the  staff  and  in  motion  at  the  same  time.  If 
there  is  douht  as  to  the  color  of  the  background  on  which 
they  are  displaying,  these  flags  ought  to.be  of  different 
colors;  as  a  white  and  a  red.  When  the  background  is 
certainly  dark,  they  ought  to  be  both  white.  If  the  back- 
ground is  light,  dark  flags  ought  to  be  used. 

Sometimes,  when  it  is  very  difficult  to  send  a  message 
from  a  station,  as  happens  occasionally  when  detached 
clouds  are  passing  the  sun,  and  dark  moving  shadows  are 
thus  thrown  on  the  earth,  the  messages  can  be  sent  if  the 
signals  are  made  only  while  the  sun  is  shining  on  the  flac, 
This  is  particularly  the  case  so  long  as  the  sun  is  in  any 
part  of  its  course  even  a  little  in  front  of  the  flag,  and  its 
light  can  be  reflected. 

On  days  of  sunshine,  the  sun  shining  upon  a  flag  of  course 
increases  its  visibility.  The  sun  shining  behind  a  flag,  does 
not  render  it  more  distinct. 

Those  days  are  best  for  the  transmission  of  messages  in 
which  the  atmosphere  is  clear,  but  the  sun  is  covered  with 
clouds.  The  light  is  then  generally  diffused.  It  is  on  such 
days  that  messages  have  been  read  at  the  longest  distances. 

Position  of  Signalmen. 

The  position  of  a  signalman,  transmitting  a  message,  must 
be  exactly  facing  the  point  to  which  the  message  is  being 
sent ;  and  this  must  be  the  case,  whatever  the  style  or  char- 
acter of  the  signal  he  is  using.  Signals,  of  whatever  de- 
scription, made  by  the  signalman,  must  also  be  shown  exactly 
on  his  right  and  left,  or  they  will  not  be  clearly  displayed  to 
the  observer. 

To  determine  this  exact  position,  a  line,  direct  to  the  other 
station,  should  be  sighted — as  over  a  straight  rod,  for  in- 
stance ;  and  a  line  following  this  direction  should  be  marked 


MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS.  247 

on  the  ground  in  front  of  the  signalman.  A  line  drawn  at 
right  angles  with  this  line,  should  extend  on  each  side  of  t  he 
signalman.  If  the  common  signal  equipment  is  to  be  used, 
a  marking-stake  should  be  driven  on  the  line  in  front  of  the 
flagman,  and  twelve  feet  distant  from  him;  and  a  similar 
marker  should  be  placed  at  the  same  distance  on  the  side 
lines  on  either  side. 

All  signals  must  he  made  with  reference  to  the  directions 
indicated  by  these  stakes.  These  lines  must  he  established 
by  daylight,  if  possible.  The  use  of  the  markers  secures 
the  accurate  displays  of  the  signals  by  day,  and  is  even  more 
manifestly  valuable  at  night,  when  the  communicating  sta- 
tion becomes  invisible.  The  flagman  has  then  the  markers 
as  guides  to  determine  the  direction  in  which  his  signals 
must  be  shown. 

A  signalman,  transmitting  messages,  should  always  be 
placed  a  little  in  advance  and  to  one  side  of  the  person  at 
the  glass,  in  order  that  errors  made  in  forming  any  signal 
may  be  noticed  and  corrected. 

When  signals  are  made  with  torches  and  the  ordinary 
apparatus,  at  night,  the  signalman  must  stand  immediately 
behind  the  foot-light,  as  relates  to  the  other  station,  and  the 
flying-light  be  so  handled  that  when  brought  to  the  front 
and  lowered  to  the  ground,  as  to  make  pause-signals,  its 
flame,  observed  from  the  communicating  station,  will  seem 
to  mingle  with  the  foot-light.  When  large,  common  fires 
are  burning  at  or  near  the  station  at  night,  care  must  be 
taken  that  they  are  so  placed  as  not  to  confound  the  view  of 
the  torch-signals  or  of  other  signal-lights  that  may  be  shown. 
The  signalman  must  be  placed  well  to  one  side  of  the  fire 
and  his  signals  must  be  displayed  out  of  the  line  of  sight 
from  the  fire  to  the  communicating  station. 

The  light  of  large  fires,  burning  near,  will  often  interfere, 
at  night,  with  the  use  of  the  glass.  The  best  location  for 
the  glass  is,  in  these  circumstances,  in  advance  of  the  fire. 


248  MANUAL   OF  SIGNALS. 

Care  must  also  be  taken  to  so  place  the  signalman  that  the 
glare  of  the  torches  or  lights  will  not  interfere  with  the  use 
of  the  telescope.  It  is  sometimes  necessary  to  erect  a  screen, 
sheltering  the  eyes  of  the  observer,  to  prevent  this  inter- 
ference. 

When  the  color  of  a  signal-flag,  to  be  used  at  any  station, 
has  been  determined  upon,  and  the  flagman  has  been  placed, 
it  may  be  yet  necessary  to  decide  whether  there  are  any 
obstacles  to  a  clear  vision  existing  between  the  stations. 
For  this  purpose,  view  the  station  to  which  communication 
is  to  be  had,  from  the  sending  station,  with  a  telescope ;  first 
from  a  position  close  to  the  ground,  at  the  feet  of  the  flag- 
man, and  then  from  two  other  points,  close  to  the  ground — 
one  on  his  right,  and  one  on  his  left,  at  a  distance  from  him 
equal  to  the  length  of  the  signal-staff  to  which  the  flag  is 
attached.  If,  from  these  three  points,  the  position  of  the 
telescope  at  the  other  station,  or  the  whole  position  on  which 
the  flagman  there  stands,  can  be  seen,  it  is  certain  that 
eveiy  signal  made  at  the  first  station  can  be  seen  at  the 
other.  Similar  precautions  to  determine  this  point  should 
be  had  at  both  ;  such  precautious  are  particularly  called  for 
at  night.  The  foot-torch,  lying  close  to  the  ground,  is  often 
hidden  by  bushes  or  high  grass  near  it,  and  night-signals  are 
thus  made  unintelligible.  Sifmallinsf  should  never  be  com- 
menced  at  night  at  any  station,  until,  with  the  head  near 
the  ground  and  in  the  place  at  which  the  foot-torch  will  be, 
the  receiving  station  has  been  observed,  and  it  has  been 
made  sure  that  the  foot-light,  shown  at  the  first,  will  be 
plainly  visible  there.  When  a  station  is  occupied  and 
worked  during  the  day,  all  preparations  for  night-signals, 
such  as  filling  the  torches,  pi'operly  placing  them,  deter- 
mining that,  when  lighted,  they  will  be  in  view  of  the  other, 
etc.,  should  be  made  before  dark.  When  this  is  impossible, 
as  when  the  station  is  first  reached  at  night,  it  may  be  held, 
that  any  point  at  one  station  from  which  the  tires  or  foot- 


MANUAL  OF  SIGNALS.  249 

lights  known  to  be  at  the  other  are  visible,  is  in  proper  view 
from  that  station. 

Working. 

When  a  station  is  found,  fix  the  telescope  steadily  upon  it, 
and  keep  it  observed  while  signals  are  made  for  its  attention. 
As  soon  as  it  is  perceived  that  attention  is  gained,  signal 
its  number,  or  call,  or  answer  any  signals  it  may  make. 

Communicating  stations  should  always  arrange  a  few 
preconcerted  signals  for  either  day  or  night  use.  These 
signals  should  be  of  such  character  as  this:  "Wait  a 
moment;"  "I  see  you,  but  cannot  reply;"  "Cease  signal- 
ling :  will  call  you  soon."  This  will  prevent  the  sometimes 
occurring  annoyance  of  calling  a  station  for  hours  when  the 
signals,  though  seen,  cannot,  for  some  reason,  be  answered. 

When  any  station  has  signalled  all  the  messages  on  hand, 
signals  to  cease  signalling  must  invariably  be  made.  When 
nothing  more  is  to  be  for  the  time  sent  from  either  station, 
both  will  make  the  "  cease  signalling"  signal.  The  ob- 
server, or  officer,  must  never  leave  his  station,  or  cease  to 
watch  the  communicating  station,  until  this  signal  has  been 
exchanged  by  both  stations.  It  must  never  be  presumed 
that  a  station  has  ceased  to  work  uutil  it  has  announced 
this  fact  by  signal. 

Stations  ceasing  to  work  for  a  short  time  only  will  display 
a  flag  flying,  and  stationary.  This  is  a  signal  that  the  com- 
municating station  may  be  called  at  any  moment. 

So  long  as  this  signal  is  made,  an  observer  will  be  kept 
at  the  glass. 

It  is  sometimes  difficult  to  assure  the  attention  of  stations 
at  unexpected  hours.  The  force  may  not  be  strong  enough 
for  an  uninterrupted  watch.  To  guard  against  this  trouble, 
it  may  be  concerted  that  certain  flags  shall  be  hoisted,  as 
on  :i  staff";  or  any  permanent  flag,  as  the  garrison  or  ship's 
flag,  shall  be  wafted,  or  a  gun  shall  be  fired,  or  a  rocket 

11* 


250  MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS. 

thrown  up,  or  a  light  burned,  in  case  communication  is  sud- 
denly required  at  unusual  times,  or  is  of  pressing  impor- 
tance. When  the  force  is  sufficiently  strong,  and  is  well 
disciplined,  these  extraordinary  signals  will  not  be  needed. 

When  a  number  of  stations  are  in  view  from  one  dom- 
inant station,  some  preconcerted  signal,  as  a  rocket,  a  red 
light,  or  some  peculiar  flag,  or  torch-signal,  or  cartridge- 
puff,  should  be  agreed  upon  as  a  signal  for  general  atten- 
tion. Upon  noticing  this  signal,  all  the  stations  reply,  and 
then  observe  the  dominant  station.  This  plan  is  useful 
when  two  or  more  stations  can,  at  the  same  time,  read  the 
signals  from  the  prominent  station,  and  thus  together  re- 
ceive any  information  to  be  transmitted  from  it. 

When  a  number  of  stations  are  working  in  concert,  cer- 
tain fixed  hours  of  the  day  and  night  should  be  named  by 
proper  authority  for  the  especial  exchange  of  messages ;  at 
which  hours,  each  station  may  be  certain  that  those  on 
duty  at  every  other  station  will  be  observant  and  ready  for 
business. 

All  persons  on  duty  should  make  it  a  point  to  be  faith- 
fully at  their  posts  at  these  hours,  even  if  communication 
may  seem  to  be  impossible. 

Stations  must  be  kept  concealed  from  the  enemy  so  far 
as  is  possible.  On  stations  of  observation  solely,  no  flags 
will  be  shown  and  no  persons  permitted  except  those  ac- 
tually on  duty.  Every  precaution  will  be  taken  to  prevent 
the  enemy  ascertaining  the  purpose  for  which  the  point  is 
occupied.  When  communication  by  signals  is  needed,  the 
flag  will  be  screened  from  observation,  if  it  can  be,  and  in 
any  case  it  will  be  shown  only  while  transmitting  messages. 
All  communications  will  be  in  cipher. 

When  two  officers  are  assigned  to  duty  at  one  station,  an 
officer  must  be  on  the  station  constantly.  When  a  single 
officer  is  on  duty  at  a  station,  either  of  observation  or  com- 
munication, he  must  be  upon  the  station  and  at  the  glass, 


MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS.  251 

whenever  the  points  are  visible,  at  least  once  every  fifteen 
minutes  during  the  day  and  at  certain  fixed  hours  during 
the  time  of  darkness,  as  at  1 1  p.  m.  and  2  a.  m. 

An  eidisted  man  will  be  at  all  times  upon  the  station  and 
at  the  glass.  IK' will  keep  a  strict  watch  upon  the  points 
t<>  be  observed,  make  himself  familiar  with  the  part  of  the 
country  to  be  viewed,  and  promptly  notify  his  officer  of 
any  changes  or  movements  lie  may  discover.  He  will  ex- 
amine, through  the  glass,  the  communicating*  stations,  at 
least  every  two  minutes,  and  will  report  all  calls.  If  reply 
cannot  at  once  be  made,  he  will  make  the  signal  "wait," 
and  then  instantly  report  the  fact  to  the  officer  in  charge. 

The  person  in  charge  of  a  station  is  responsible  for  the 
discipline  of  his  party,  the  condition  of  their  arms  and 
equipments,  and  the  duties  of  the  station. 

Failure  to  promptly  recognize  and  reply  to  calls,  to 
transmit  messages,  to  notice  and  report  upon  movements 
or  other  changes  visible,  is  punished,  in  the  case  of  either 
officers  or  enlisted  men,  as  neglect  of  duty. 

The  officer  in  charge  of  any  number  of  stations  must  visit 
each  in  person,  and  see  that  it  actually  transmits  and  re- 
ceives messages  in  his  presence,  lie  may  else  be  deceived, 
until  a  critical  moment,  by  the  incorrect  report  as  to  the 
working  of  some  station  which  will  fail  in  an  emergency. 

A  record  of  messages  ought  to  be  kept  at  each  station, 
and  in  it  noted  the  date  and  hour  of  receipt  or  transmission 
of  every  message. 

The  original  manuscripts  of  messages  received  at  a  sta- 
tion for  transmission,  must  be  carefully  filed. 

There  must  be,  also,  a  record  of  the  "watches"  on  duty 
each  day,  with  their  hours  of  duty,  in  order  that  any  negli- 
gence may  be  traced. 

When  two  stations  are  communicating  at  dusk,  or  when 
it  is  growing  dark,  and  a  light  is  shown  at  the  receiving 
station,  it  is  a  signal  to  the  sending  station  to  use  thereafter 


252  MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS. 

torches,  or  lights,  instead  of  flags.  A  light  similarly  shown 
at  dawn  and  then  extinguished,  or  a  flag  then  displayed, 
indicates  to  the  sending  station  to  cease  using  lights,  and 
to  commence  using  day-signals. 

While  the  message  is  being  transmitted  by  signals,  the 
sending  station  should  constantly  observe  the  receiving 
station  with  the  telescope,  in  order  that  any  signals  there 
made  to  stop  the  transmission  of  the  message  may  be  in- 
stantly seen.  The  flag,  or  any  signal,  put  in  motion  at  the 
receiving  station,  is  a  "stop-signal."  These  stop-signals 
may  be  made  necessary  by  any  accident  at  the  receiving 
station.  For  instance,  the  telescope  there  may  be  thrown 
out  of  adjustment,  or  the  connection  of  the  message  may 
have  been  lost ;  or  by  numerous  other  causes,  which  will 
render  a  brief  cessation  of  the  signalling  desirable.  A  sig- 
nal to  stop  should  be  at  once  recognized  by  the  sending 
station,  and  the  further  sending  of  the  message  must  be 
suspended  until  the  receiving  station  again  announces  its 
readiness  for  work.  Stop-signals,  of  this  character,  cause 
much  loss  of  time,  and  should  never,  unless  absolutely 
necessary,  be  made  by  a  receiving  station.  If  part  of  a 
message  is  lost,  it  is  better  to  receive  the  remainder,  and 
then  ask  for  the  repetition  of  the  missing  portion. 

In  sending  very  lengthy  messages,  the  precaution  should 
be  observed  to  cease  signalling  from  time  to  time,  and  to  in- 
quire from  the  receiving  station  if  the  foregoing  has  been 
correctly  received.  This  inquiry  may  be  made  by  any  sig- 
nal, to  which  the  receiver  replies  by  the  usual  signal,  of 
message  understood,  or  by  other  preconcerted  signal,  as  the 
case  may  be. 

When  several  messages  are  to  be  sent  in  succession,  "end 
of  message  signal"  will  be  made  after  the  signature  of  each, 
to  be  followed  by  the  word  "  another :"  then  "  end  of  mes- 
sage signal"  again — after  which  commence  with  the  ad- 
dress of  the  next   message  to  be  following,  being  careful, 


MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS.  253 

always,  when  the  messages  are  from  different  places  or 

headquarters  to  say — "  From (name  of  place)  To , 

etc.,  etc."     Without  this  precaution  very  serious  errors  may 
occur  from  the  blending  of  separate  communications. 

Signals  in  the  field  are  generally  made  by  a  signalman, 
who,  previously  drilled,  makes  each  signal  by  order.  These 
orders,  "calling  off  signals,"  must  be  uttered  with  careful 
distinctness  and  precision.  .V  pause  is  made  after  each  let- 
ter combination.  "When  a  message  is  lengthy,  a  longer 
pause  is  made  at  the  end  of  each  sentence,  to  allow  the 
sentence  to  be  written  down  by  the  receiver.  Messages 
must  be  grammatically  correct,  and  be  correctly  spelled. 
The  receiver  is  sometimes  confounded  by  signals  made  for 
a  word  so  spelled  that  it  is  not  recognizable. 

"When  stations  are  certainly  in  sight  of  each  other,  pre- 
parations for  continued  work  should  be  carefully  made  be- 
fore the  transmission  of  official  messages  is  commenced. 

Officers  will  always  avail  themselves  of  proper  precautions 
to  locate  their  men  and  themselves  in  unexposed  positions. 
When  in  an  exposed  position  officers  and  men  will  lie  down, 
except  while  transmitting  messages.  The  flag  will  be  kept 
flying,  to  indicate  the  position  of  the  station  to  those  who 
may  be  seeking  for  it,  and  to  the  other  signal-stations  with 
which  it  may  be  in  communication.  The  flagman  and  the 
man  at  the  telescope  may  be  sheltered  by  temporary  screens 
— as  of  bales  of  hay,  fascines,  sand-bags,  etc.;  and  these  can 
be  erected  in  the  few  moments  preceding  an  attack. 

The  signal  staff  and  flag  alone  need  project  above  the 
screen.  At  night,  the  foot-torch  may  be  upon  the  top  of  the 
screen  or  rampart,  and  the  flying-torch  be  moved  relatively 
to  it,  by  the  staff  projecting  above  the  work :  the  signalman 
being  covered. 

When  there  is  danger  of  capture,  all  messages  or  impor- 
tant papers  must  be  destroyed. 

Each  signalist  should  have  a  particular  signal  by  which 


254  MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS. 

lie  can  be  known.  This  signal  may  be  that  for  any  letter  or 
letters  of  the  alphabet.  It  is  known  as  the  "officer's  signa- 
ture, or  call."  It  serves  to  distinguish  him,  and  any  mes- 
sage sent  by  him,  and  for  the  correctness  of  which  he  is  to 
be  held  responsible.  By  it  is  also  designated  the  station  at 
which  the  officer  commands.  A  call,  or  particular  signal, 
is  in  like  manner  generally  assigned  for  each  station,  to 
distinguish  that  station  from  others. 

Whenever  these  particular  calls  are  seen  signalled,  it  is 
known  that  the  attention  of  the  officers  or  the  station  is 
desired.  The  officer  or  the  station  should  at  once  respond, 
making  at  the  close  of  the  response  the  same  particular 
signal  by  which  they  are  identified.  The  calling  station  or 
officer  should  give  his  own  call  or  signal.  There  is  thus 
established  between  the  parties  a  mutual  knowledge  as  to 
the  parties  with  which  each  is  in  communication. 

There  are  times  when  it  will  be  necessary  to  read  mes- 
sages, while  it  is  known  that  the  signalman  is  facing  away 
from  the  reader.  In  this  case  the  messages  will  be  easily 
legible,  if  it  is  remembered  that  each  signal  will  appear  to 
the  reader  to  be  precisely  the  reverse  of  that  which  is  made 
by  the  signalman ;  thus  all  those  signals  displayed  on  the 
right  will  seem  to  the  reader  to  be  shown  on  the  left,  while 
those  actually  made  on  the  left  of  the  signalman  will  seem 
to  be  made  on  his  right.  Recalling  this  fact,  it  will  be  as 
easy  to  read  the  signals  made  at  any  station  from  the  rear 
of  that  station  as  it  is  from  its  front. 

The  preseuce  of  visitors,  other  than  official,  should  not  be 
encouraged  at  signal-stations  of  any  importance.  In  an 
enemy's  country,  visitors  are  generally  spies,  who  come 
under  various  pretences,  the  most  innocent,  to  gather  infor- 
mation as  to  what  precise  points  are  in  view  from  the  station, 
in  order  that  the  enemy  may  avoid  them ;  and  such  other 
items  of  useful  intelligence  as  they  may  glean  from  un- 
suspecting officers.     A'isitors  should  never  be  allowed  to 


MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS.  255 

tamper  with  glasses,  to  examine  messages,  or  to  do  any  act 
by  which  the  enemy  may  gain  unnecessary  knowledge. 

Signal-Stations  should  be  among  the  last  positions  to  be 
abandoned  when  an  army  is  about  to  move,  for  events  may 
happen  at  the  last  moment  which  will  require  the  delay  or 
the  change  of  the  movement,  or  important  messages  may 
need  instant  transmittal. 

The  chief  signal-officer  must  exercise  a  discretion  as  to  the 
number  and  position  of  stations  to  be  so  held. 

When  stations  are  in  operation,  and  it  is  contemplated  to 
move  one  of  them,  the  moving  station  must  inform  the  ob- 
serving station  of  the  fact  of  its  change,  and  indicate,  when 
practicable,  the  position  from  which  communication  will  be 
resumed. 

To  Locate  Stations. 

To  open  a  line  of  stations  across  a  country,  first  choose 
some  prominent  position,  and  one  well  visible;  and  here 
establish  the  initial  station.  Let  the  party  assemble  here. 
Let  them,  together,  select  a  second  prominent  point  in 
view  as  nearly  as  possible  in  the  line  of  direction  you 
wish  to  take.  Upon  the  tirst  station,  erect  some  kind 
of  beacon — as  a  white  or  other  colored  signal-nag;  or 
some  marked  object,  by  which  it  can  be  recognized  from  a 
distance.  Take  from  this  first  point  the  bearing  by  compass 
of  the  point  selected.  This  second  point  should  be  one  not 
only  visible  from  the  initial  point,  but  one  also  probably  in 
view  from  positions  beyond  it.  Note  should  be  made  of 
some  peculiar  house,  rock,  tree,  or  other  marked  object 
upon  it,  in  order  that  the  exact  place  maybe  recognized 
when  it  is  reached.  At  the  first  point,  now  marked  with  its 
beacon,  station  an  officer  to  reply  to  any  signals  he  may 
see,  and  to  watch  the  course  of  the  marching  party.  The 
other  officers  will  then  move,  guided  by  compass,  if  need  be, 
toward   the   second  point   selected,   carrying   a   signal-flag 


256  MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS. 

flying,  in  order  that  their  position  may  be  known  whenever 
they   come    in   view  from    the   first    station,   and  intently 
watched  by  the  officer  left  at  that  station,  the  marching 
party  will,  from  time  to  time,  put  itself  in  communication 
Avith  the  first  station,  so  as  to  receive  from  it  any  direction 
as  to  its  course  the  first  station  may  wish  to  give,  or  any 
other  information.     It  will  also  frequently  verify  its  course 
by  compass.     On  reaching  the  point  chosen  for  the  second 
station,  a  beacon  or  flag  will  be  there  erected,  observations 
will  be  made,  and  communication  will  be  opened  with  the 
first  station.     Points,  on  either  side  or  to  the  rear,  will  be 
examined,  to  see  if  the  second  station  can  be  better  located 
than  it  is  with  reference  to  a  third  station  to  be  next  estab- 
lished.   The  second  station  will  then  be  definitely  established 
and  marked,  and  an  officer  there  stationed,  as  before  at  the 
first  station,  to  watch  the  marching  party.    The  point  for  the 
third  station  will  be  hence  chosen,  and  the  party  will  pro- 
ceed toward  it  with  the  same  general  rules  as  before.    These 
operations  will  be  repeated  in  the  case  of  each  station,  until 
the  terminal  station  is  reached.    Attempts  will  be  afterward 
made  to  reduce  the  number  of  intermediate  stations  by  find- 
ing other  and  better  points  at  which  to  locate  some  of  them. 
Should  an  officer,  while  establishing  a  line,  and  before  it 
is  completed,  find,  on  reaching  any  station,  that  he  is  able  to 
communicate  over  any  of  the  intermediate  stations  between 
himself  and  the  first,  he  will  notify  the  unnecessary  station 
of  the  fact :  not,  however,  until  he  has  both  received  and 
sent  messages  over  it  to  some  other  station.     Upon  receiv- 
ing this  information,  the  officers  at  the  needless  station  will, 
after  notifying  the    stations   near  them  of  their  purpose, 
abandon  their  own  station  and  proceed  to  the  station  next 
in  advance,  or  to  that  one  which  has  given  the  information. 
The  officer  who  has  been  temporarily  stationed  there  will, 
on  their  arrival,  join  the  inarching  party,  which  will  mean- 
while have  been  pushed  forward  to  continue  the  line. 


MANUAL  OF  SIGNALS.  257 

It  sometimes  occurs,  in  locating  signal-stations,  that  it  can 
be  known  only  that  a  signal-station  will  be  opened  in  some 
part  of  the  country  overlooked  from  a  given  station;  or  that 
an  officer  has  been  sent  in  a  certain  direction,  and  that  he 
will  try,  from  some  point  in  that  direction,  to  open  signal 
communication. 

This  is  to  establish  a  "moving  station."  Moving  stations 
are  so  called,  to  distinguish  them  from  stations  "fixed"  by 
preconcert.  Moving  stations  must  always  be  as  prominently 
placed  as  is  possible:  as  on  hill-tops;  in  the  centre  of  open 
iields  ;  near  marked  houses  ; — the  more  apt  to  attract  atten- 
tion the  better.  It  should  be  kept  constantly  in  view  to 
always  thus  locate  a  moving  station  near  something  which 
is  likely  to  attract  attention  from  the  observing  station. 

Officers  upon  fixed  signal-stations  will,  if  expecting  signals 
anywhere,  and  habitually  without  especial  orders,  closely 
examine,  from  time  to  time,  every  prominent  point  within 
signal-distance,  to  see  if  signal  communication  is  attempted 
from  any  quarter.  With  this  view,  they  will  study  the 
vicinity  of  all  houses,  spires,  peaks,  hill-tops,  broad  open 
fields  in  the  midst  of  woodlands  (an  open  field  command- 
ing a  view  of  a  known  fixed  station  is  a  spot  always  to  be 
selected  in  a  forest,  on  which  to  establish  a  moving  station), 
the  banks  of  rivers,  prominent  trees,  stacks  in  fields,  etc. 
The  vicinity  of  smokes  of  any  kind,  seen  at  any  time,- must 
be  carefully  scrutinized.  At  night,  all  fire  lights,  or  brilliant 
lights  of  any  kind,  are  to  be  examined.  Flashes  must  be 
particularly  observed. 

The  Moving  Station  must  be  provided  with  some  distinct 
and  very  visible  signals,  to  attract  attention.  To  mark 
positions  anywhere  in  an  overlooked  country  by  day,  smokes 
may  be  made.  Puffs  of  smoke,  made  by  firing  powder 
loosely  poured  on  the  ground  from  cannon  cartridges,  can 
be  seen  at  very  great  distances.  The  cartridges  can  be 
easily  carried  on  horseback.     They  are  tired  with  a  train  or 


258  MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS. 

slow-match.  These  puffs  may,  to  be  distinctive,  be  varied 
in  number.  There  should  always  be  a  prearranged  code  or 
understanding  as  to  the  number  and  kind  of  puffs  or  other 
signals  to  be  shown. 

A  dense  white  smoke,  visible  at  a  long  distance,  can  be 
made  with  dampened  straw  or  hay.  A  fire  should  first  be 
set  well  burning,  and  then  large  armfuls  of  the  dampened 
straw,  or  armfuls  of  leafy  branches,  be  thrown  suddenly 
and  well  spread  upon  it. 

A  station  which  has  difficulty  in  making  itself  visible  will 
be  apt  to  be  discovered  if  moved  near  where  artillery  is 
firing,  the  attention  of  the  observer  being  drawn  by  the 
report  and  the  smoke  of  the  guns. 

The  plan  of  Chronosemic  Signals,  and  the  use  of  the  Sig- 
nal Mortar  with  the  Signal  Bombs,  affords  one  of  the  most 
powerful  and  certain  modes  of  attracting  attention. 

Before  a  smoke-puff  or  signal  of  any  kind  is  exhibited  at 
the  moving  station,  the  largest  white  and  red  flags  ought 
to  be  displayed  together  upon  the  signal  flag-staff;  and  these 
should  be  kept  in  motion,  swinging  from  side  to  side,  near 
the  point  from  which  the  smoke  rises,  while  it  is  rising,  and 
for  some  time  after,  in  order  that  the  glass,  at  the  observing 
station,  turned  upon  the  smoke,  may  find  the  flag  thus  mov- 
ing in  its  field  of  view.  When  the  attempt  to  attract  the 
attention  of  the  observing  station  is  to  be  long  continued,  a 
large  flag  will  be  fastened  to  a  second  staff,  and  kept  hoisted 
in  some  prominent  position  ;  the  pole  being  fastened,  as  in 
the  corner  of  a  fence,  or  to  a  stake  driven  into  the  ground. 

At  night,  a  signal-fire,  made  like  any  other  fire,  and  meant 
to  attract  attention,  is  sometimes  flashed,  to  distinguish  it 
from  other  fires.  This  is  done  by  causing  two  men  to  hold  a 
blanket  spread  before  it — that  is,  between  it  and  the  observ- 
ing station — and  to  raise  and  lower  this  blanket  every  two 
seconds.  This  is  ordered  in  this  wise :  "  one-two-up  ;"  "  one- 
two-down,"  and  continue.   The  intermittent  light,  thus  made, 


MANUAL  OF   SIGNALS.  259 

is  easilv  distinguished.  The  powder  from  cannon  cartridges, 
poured  loosely  on  the  ground,  and  fired  at  eight,  makes  an 
intense  white  Hash,  almost  certain  to  attract  attention.  Two 
or  three  cartridges  may  be  employed  together,  and  fired  at 
one  Hash,  to  increase  the  volume  of  light.  Rockets  and 
Roman  candles  are  very  useful.  Composition  lights,  such  as 
the  Coston  signablights,  or  the  common  red,  white,  or  green 
composition  lights  are  also  useful.  They  will  attract  atten- 
tion at  distances  of  six  or  eight  miles.  Red  lights  are  pre- 
ferable to  any  other,  for  the  reason  that  they  show  distinct 
among  eamp-h'res,  or  other  lights,  and  cannot  be  confounded 
with  them.  The  volume  of  light  may  be  increased  for  great 
distances  by  emptying  the  composition  from  several  lights 
together,  and  thus  firing  it.  Any  kind  of  colored  composi- 
tion light  may  be  agreed  upon  to  be  shown  as  a  precon- 
certed signal,  by  which  all  friendly  signal-officers,  as,  for  in- 
stance, those  serving  with  a  single  army  or  a  single  corps, 
may  indicate  their  position  at  night. 

Thus  a  "  red-white-green"  composition  cartridge  might  be 
the  general  night-signal  for  all  forces  belonging  to  the  United 
States  Army;  while  the  different  composition  lights  known 
by  their  numbers  "one,"  "two,"  "three,"  etc.,  as  given  at 
]).  -216,  might  be  the  distinctive  signal  for  the  Army  Corps 
by  their  numbers. 

Any  Detachment  of  any  Corps  may  thus  show  its  signal- 
number  from  any  position. 

Thus  a  "  red-white-green"  cartridge  fired,  and  followed  by 
a  "  red-white,"  would  signal  and  indicate  the  position  of 
"  Headquarters — 5th  Army  Corps." 

A  "  red-white"  cartridge  fired  alone  would  indicate  "  De- 
tachment of  5th  Army  Corps."  Distinctive  Chronosemic 
Signals  may  be  arranged  for  the  same  purpose,  and  there 
may  be  certain  secret  signals  to  be  fired  by  order  of  corps 
commanders  only,  and  understood  by  the  general-in-chief 
alone. 


260  MANUAL  OF   SIGNALS. 

A  certain  signal,  as  of  guns  or  rockets  or  colored  lights, 
should  be  given  to  each  general  or  admiral  only,  as  a  means 
by  which,  as  by  a  countersign,  to  recognize  friendly  forces. 

Attempts  to  attract  the  attention  of  a  station,  in  order  to 
be  successful,  must  be  persistent.  They  should  never  be 
abandoned,  until  every  device  has  been  exhausted  :  and 
they  should  be  renewed  and  continued  at  different  hours  of 
the  day  and  night.  It  must  be  always  remembered,  that 
attempts  which  have  failed  may  have  failed  because  the 
observer's  attention  has  been  drawn  in  another  direction, 
and  that  the  effort  may,  at  any  other  moment,  be  a  success, 
if  the  observing-glass  chances  to  bear  on  the  calling  signals. 

During:  the  whole  time  that  attention  signals  are  mak- 
ing,  by  day  or  by  night,  the  calling  or  moving  station  must 
watch  closely  with  the  telescope  the  station  called  ;  nor 
should  the  watch  be  relaxed,  at  any  time,  until  communica- 
tion is  fairly  opened.  It  can  never  be  known  at  what  mo- 
ment the  observing  station  mav  first  have  si«ht  of  or  be 
ready  to  reply  to,  the  signal  seen.  Should  the  efforts  of  the 
calling  or  moving  station  be  successful,  and  attract  attention 
of  the  observing  station,  the  observing  or  fixed  station  ought 
to  reply  at  once  with  signals  of  recognition  and  a  brief  mes- 
sage— as,  "  I  see  you,"  etc. ;  or,  if  it  is  practicable,  it  should 
make  a  signal  similar  to  that  seen :  as  answering  smoke  by 
smoke  ;  a  rocket  by  a  rocket ;  composition  lights  by  com- 
position lights ;  or  making  some  marked  signal  which  shall 
announce  to  the  moving  station  the  fact  that  its  position  is 
noted.  The  observing  station  should  take  care  to  keep  a 
signal-flag  flying  all  the  time,  to  afford  a  marked  point  to 
the  moving  station,  and  to  indicate  that  an  officer  is  on  duty 
and  at  the  glass. 

It  not  unfrequently  happens  that  two  moving  stations  are 
in  quest  of  each  other.  In  this  case  each  should  seek  dom- 
inant points,  or  points  in  view  of  dominant  points  as  far  as 
possible  in  the  direction  of  the  other,  and  thence  endeavor 


MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS.  261 

to  open  communication.  And  it  should  be  a  general  rule 
for  all  such  cases,  that  at  certain  agreed  hours,  as  at  six  a.  m., 
nine  a.  m.,  noon,  three  r.  m.,  six  p.  m.,  nine  P.  M.,  midnight, 
etc.,  eacli  shall  be  at  some  dominant  station  seeking  tor  the 
other,  or  shall  make  signals  agreed  upon,  wherever  they  may 
be,  for,  say  fifteen  minutes. 

This  rule  of  signalling  at  predetermined  hours  applies  to 
all  attempts  to  open  communication.  Timepieces  must  be 
adjusted  together. 

A  signalist,  observing  from  an  elevated  station,  and  find- 
ing his  own  view  of  the  communicating  station  uninterrupted, 
may  be  led  to  imagine  that  the  station  on  which  he  stands 
is  more  prominently  visible,  from  the  communicating  sta- 
tion, than  is  the  case  in  fact.  Thus  a  person  viewing  from 
the  top  of  a  house,  may  think  the  whole  house  is  in  view  from 
the  observing  station,  when  in  fact  nothing  but  the  roof  can 
be  thence  seen.  Or  located  behind  a  ridge,  the  signalist 
may  think  his  whole  station  in  good  view,  when,  perhaps,  his 
head  only  is  visible  from  that  communicating.  To  deter- 
mine whether  any  station  is  clearly  in  view  from  any  other, 
the  observing  station  must  be  viewed  fromthe  ground,  and 
from  different  positions  close  to  the  station.  If  the  station 
can  be  well  seen  from  these  different  points,  that  from 
which  these  observations  are  made  must  of  course  be  plainly 
visible. 


In  locating  stations,  and  in  opening  communication  be- 
tween them,  an  officer  will  sometimes  find  himself  in  a  po- 
sition whence  some  other  station  ought  to  be,  visible,  but 
finds  his  view  shut  off  by  trees  or  bushes  near  him.  In  this 
case,  the  tallest  tree  should  be  climbed.  If  the  other  station 
is  in  view  from  the  tree-top,  its  attention  can  be  attracted, 
and  a  temporary  communication  be  opened,  by  signals  made 


2C2  MANUAL  OF   SIGNALS. 

by  the  flag,  or  other  signal,  displayed  in  the  tree-top.  The 
flagman  may  then  secure  himself  in  the  tree  with  a  belt  or 
rope.  The  ofticer  Axes  his  own  position  at  some  other  place 
in  the  same  tree,  and  rests  his  telescope  among  its  branches  ; 
or  what  is  better,  ascends  another  tree  for  this  purpose, — as 
the  first  is  apt  to  be  so  shaken  by  the  motions  of  the  flag- 
man, as  to  disturb  the  vision  through  the  telescope.  The 
stations  having  recognized  each  the  position  of  the  other, 
telegraphic  communication  will  be  had  without  difficulty. 

It  should  be  borne  in  mind  by  an  officer  on  signal  duty, 
that  it  is  very  possible  his  own  signals  may  be  seen  and 
read  by  the  officer  with  whom  he  wishes  to  communicate, 
though  it  may  be  impossible  for  him  to  find  the  exact  posi- 
tion of  that  officer;  or  having  found  it,  it  may  be  impossi- 
ble for  him  to  read  the  signals  made  to  him,  owing  to 
defect  of  light,  or  smoke,  or  glare,  or  haze.  It  is  a  rule, 
therefore,  to  send  any  important  message,  or  any  informa- 
tion it  is  wished  to  convey,  whenever  the  sending  station  is 
in  a  position  whence  the  signals  ought  to  be  seen  by  the 
other  station.  There  is  a  chance,  to  be  considered,  that 
some  third  station  may  receive  the  message,  and  the  infor- 
mation be  thus  available.  This  is,  of  course,  not  to  be  con- 
sidered as  a  final  sending  of  the  message — a  message  never 
being  considered  as  sent,  by  signals,  until  it  is  clearly  ac- 
knowledged by  signals.  This  plan  may,  however,  be  some- 
times useful.  There  are  also,  sometimes,  intervals  of  two 
or  three  hours  when  the  position  of  the  sun,  or  a  peculiar 
haze  or  light,  makes  one  of  two  communicating  stations 
almost  invisible,  while  the  other  is  thence  seen  more  clearly 
than  is  usual.  Now  the  visible  station  ought  not  to  waste 
this  time,  but  to  send  forward  its  messages  with  great  care 
and  distinctness,  numbering  the  words,  etc.  This  should 
not  be  attempted,  however,  unless  the  sending  station  is, 
while  sending,  always  able  to  see  at  least  the  signals  of 
recognition  or  "  to  repeat,"  made  at  the  close  of  each  mes- 


MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS.  2G3 

sage  by  the  receiving  station.  As  soon  as  mutual  commu- 
nication is  had  again,  full  inquiry  can  be  made  as  to  the 
receipt  of  the  message  thus  sent.  So  one  officer  may  find 
himself  so  close  to  the  enemy  that  he  dare  not  respond  to 
any  signals,  yet  may  perfectly  read  those  made  from  another 
station.  It  may  be  important  to  send  information  by  signals 
to  an  officer  tints  situated  without  caring  to  wait  his  reply. 
There  are  other  possible  cases  in  which  messages  may  be 
sent  when  it  is  known  that  they  cannot  be  either  acknowl- 
edged or  answered  by  signals.  A  station  may  sometimes 
receive  many  messages,  when  the  messages  sent  by  it  can- 
not be  read.  It  frequently  happens  that  the  signal  of  re- 
cognition, "  message  understood,"  and  of  "  repeat,  message 
not  understood" — which  two  signals  are  sufficient  to  insure 
the  correct  reception  of  messages — can  be  seen,  made  by  a 
station,  when  no  consecutive  signals  made  by  that  station 
are  visible.  Or  a  conventional  signal,  as  a  puff  of  smoke, 
may  be  agreed  \;pon  to  indicate  "messages  understood," 
before  the  signal  parties  separate.  Two  puffs  might  mean 
"  repeat ;"  or  any  other  signal  may  be  adopted.  On  the 
same  principle,  an  officer  calling  a  station  with  his  flag,  and 
being  without  reply,  or  with  such  replies  only  as  he  is  un- 
able to  read,  continuing  to  call,  may  interpose  messages; 
for  his  flag  is  as  visible  and  as  likely  to  attract  attention 
while  sending  a  message,  as  while  simply  waving  for  atten- 
tion. Thus  such  a  message  as  this  may  be  transmitted  :  "  I 
cannot  see  you.  Am  going  to  the  top  of  the  mountain ;" 
or,  "  Can't  see  you.  Look  for  me  on  the  steeple ;"  or, 
"  Can't  see  you.  Go  to  open  field  on  crest  of  ridge,"  etc. ; 
or,  "Can't  see  you.  Enemy  are  coming  by  this  road,"  etc 
This  rule  applies  to  night-signals  when,  sometimes,  one  sta- 
tion distinctly  sees  the  signals  of  another,  but  cannot  reply 
with  signals  of  the  same  kind,  because  the  apparatus  is 
broken,  or  the  supply  of  fluid  for  the  lights  is  exhausted. 
If  in  such  a  case  a  station  is  called,  it  replies  by  burning  a 


264  MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS. 

signal-light,  or  by  throwing  up  a  rocket,  or  by  making  a 
camp-fire  flash,  or  by  flashing  gunpowder:  the  message 
may  then  be  sent.  If  it  is  correctly  received,  the  disabled 
station  shows  two  flashes,  or  throws  up  two  rockets,  or  dis- 
plays two  lights.  If  the  message  is  not  correctly  received, 
only  a  single  flash,  or  rocket,  or  light  is  shown.  This  indi- 
cates that  the  message  must  be  repeated.  A  station  can 
hardly  be  so  disabled  but  that  an  experienced  officer  will 
be  able  to  make  this  much  of  recognition.  It  is  impossible 
he  should  be  without  some  kind  of  light  that  can  be  seen, 
or  the  power  to  make  some  one  of  the  numberless  styles  of 
signals. 

It  will  be  found  sometimes  possible  to  signal  between 
elevated  peaks,  when  all  the  landscape  of  the  lower  country 
is  deeply  buried  in  fog ;  and,  conversely,  a  peak  will  some- 
times be  wrapped  in  clouds,  when  lower  down  the  view  is 
unobstructed.  In  the  former  case,  messages  may  be  sent 
by  ascending  to  mountain  summits  ;  and  in  the  latter  case, 
by  descending,  so  as  to  be  below  the  cloud  stratum. 

It  is  sometimes  necessary  for  stations  to  change  positions 
while  working.  In  this  case  the  observing  station  should 
carefully  watch  the  flag  of  the  moving  station,  which  must 
be  carried  flying,  in  order  that  it  may  be  readily  traced  to 
the  new  situation.  A  movement  of  a  station  sometimes  be- 
comes necessary,  at  the  request  of  a  communicating  station, 
to  improve  the  background,  or  the  view  of  the  moved  sta- 
tion. These  movements  are  often  for  a  few  yards  only.  In 
such  case,  the  moving  station,  carrying  its  oavii  flag  flying, 
must  carefully  watch  the  flag  of  the  observing  station, 
wdiich  is  kept  in  view  in  order  that  it  may  be  so  watched, 
and  the  movement  must  be  instantly  stopped  at  the  signal 
from  the  observing  station,  which  indicates  when  the  mov- 
ing flag  has  reached  the  precise  position  desired. 

The  signal  "  22,  22,  22,  3,"  from  the  observing  station,  is 
the  signal  to  stop  the  movement. 


MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS.  k2l*>") 

When  there  is  any  trouble  about  the  visibility  of  signals, 
the  largest  and   brightest  flags,  or  other  signals,  should  at 

once  be  used.     It  will  often  happen,  that  after  working  thus 
for  a  short  time,  the  signalist,  becoming  accustomed  to  the 

range,  will  work  successfully  with  smaller  signals. 

When,  at  the  receiving  station,  it  is  noticed  that  a  change 
in  the  color  of  the  signals  shown  at  the  sending  station 
would  render  them  more  visible,  the  fact  should  be  immedi- 
ately stated.  When  there  is  any  question  as  to  the  color  of 
signals  to  be  shown  at  the  different  stations,  each  station 
should  indicate  to  the  other  that  color  most  distinctly  visi- 
ble from  its  own  point  of  view. 

Establishing  Signal-stations. 

When  high  winds  interfere  with  the  proper  display  of 
flags,  or  other  signals,  at  any  position,  the  signal-station 
there  ought  to  be  established  in  the  lee  of  a  grove,  or  shel- 
tered by  a  house  or  hill.  It  will  sometimes  happen  that 
signals  made  from  a  given  position  cannot  be  seen ;  while, 
near  that  position,  is  a  point  at  which  a  sky-exposure,  or 
other  advantage,  can  be  had,  which  will  make  the  signals 
there  visible.  In  such  case,  the  receiving  station  should 
direct  the  sending  station  where  to  place  the  flagman.  This 
may  be  done  by  the  usual  signals  of  the  codes  prepared  for 
the  purpose,  or  by  an  especial  message. 

Communicating  stations  oucdit  not,  when  it  can  be 
avoided,  to  be  located  exactly  on  an  east  and  west  line,  or 
the  line  of  the  apparent  course  of  the  sun.  That  station 
which  is  in  the  direction  from  which  the  sun  shines  in  anv 
part  of  its  course,  is  very  liable  to  seem  to  be  enveloped  in 
a  haze,  and  the  telescope,  if  turned  upon  it,  is  filled  with  a 
dazzling  lisrht. 

The  landscape  is  often  seen  as  perfectly  clear,  and  signals 
are  plainly  visible  in  every  direction,  excepting  toward  the 

12 


266  MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS. 

rising  or  setting  sun.  There  is  a  bright  haze.  It  is  better, 
therefore,  that  the  line  of  the  stations  should  obliquely  cross 
the  apparent  course  of  the  sun,  and  care  should  be  taken 
to  so  arrange  them.  If  that  cannot  be  done,  the  stations 
lying  in  the  apparent  course  of  the  sun  should  be  so  located 
that  they  may  have  a  sky-exposure  when  viewed  from  the 
communicating  station.  This  obviates,  to  a  very  great  ex- 
tent, the  difficulty  of  sun  haze ;  and  wherever  that  diffi- 
culty exists,  effort  should,  at  once,  be  made  to  secure  such 
an  exposure  for  the  obscured  station. 

In  the  same  way,  when  there  are  temporary  interruptions, 
as  often  happens  from  clouds  passing  the  sun,  a  sky-exposure 
secured  for  the  obscured  station  will  render  all  signals  there 
displayed,  legible. 

A  station  should  never  be  located  in  a  camp,  or  among 
tents,  or  where  the  white  canvas  of  tents  can  form  the  back- 
ground of  signals  viewed  from  the  other  station.  The  pas- 
sage of  squads  of  men  in  an  encampment,  the  smoke  from 
the  numerous  cook-fires,  the  dust  thrown  up  by  marching 
troops  or  trains,  the  curiosity  of  persons  not  attached  to  the 
station,  render  the  camp  the  most  unsuitable  locality  for  a 
signal-station.  The  difficulties  are  increased,  at  night,  by 
the  glare  of  the  numerous  fires  apt  to  be  kindled  between 
the  communicating  stations;  the  smoke  that,  then  more 
heavily  than  in  the  day,  rests  over  the  quarters ;  and  the 
almost  impossibility  of  distinguishing,  at  great  distances, 
the  signal-torches  or  lights  from  the  changing  lights  of  the 
encampment.  Every  precaution  should  be  taken  to  avoid 
these  annoyances.  The  point  chosen  ought  to  be  one  suffi- 
ciently near  the  headquarters  of  the  general  commanding, 
but  outside  of  camp,  and  on  one  side  of  it,  on  some  clearly 
visible  spot,  and  with  as  few  encampments  between  it  and 
the  communicating  station  as  possible.  It  is  always  advis- 
able to  avoid  working  over  an  encampment,  if  it  is  near 
and  on  nearly  the  same  level  as  the  station.     The  smoke 


MANUAL   OF    SIGNALS.  267 

ami  dust  which  constantly  arise  from  a  camp  arc  serious 
obstacles  to  successful  working. 

1  Jed    lights   or  rockets    must   be   kept    at    encampment 

stations,  to  mark  the  exact  position  of  that  station,  it'  the 
communicating  station  is  very  far  distant,  and  the  officers 
at  it  thus  liable  to  be  confused  by  the  number  of  lights  and 
tires  at  the  encampment.  This  will  he  found  to  be  often 
the  case,  when  the  stations  are  located  among  the  camps  of 
a  grand  army. 

Signal  stations  should  always  be  chosen  elevated  from  the 
ground  as  much  as  is  possible,  when  there  is  difficulty  about 
smoke,  or  haze,  or  dust.  The  undulation  of  the  atmosphere, 
noticeable  on  a  hot  summer's  day,  is  always  less  at  a  distance 
from  the  earth's  surface.  Thus  it  is  sometimes  practicable 
to  read  from  a  tree  or  a  house-top  when  it  is  almost  impos- 
sible to  so  read  from  the  ground.  This  undulation  is  less  also 
over  spots  well  shaded  than  in  the  glare  of  the  sun.  This 
should  be  borne  in  mind  in  all  telescopic  examinations. 
Permanent  stations  should  never  be  placed  in  hollows,  or  on 
low  land,  when  high  ground  is  attainable.  The  greatest  ele- 
vation should  invariably  be  sought.  In  the  cool  night  air, 
the  smoke  and  dust  of  the  day  lie  close  to  the  ground,  filling 
the  hollows  and  obscuring  low  lands,  while  the  higher  points 
emerge  in  view  like  islands.  So,  too,  the  elevated  points 
are  frev.  to  a  great  extent,  from  heavy  moving  mists  and  the 
malaria  of  unhealthy  locations.  There  are  these  advantages, 
aside  from  their  better  location,  for  workino-.  By  careful 
selections  of  high  ground,  stations  can  often  be  worked 
when  signals  on  the  lower  fields  would  be  invisible.  For 
these  reasons,  it  is  well  to  have,  sometimes,  a  station  for 
night  work  on  a  house-top  or  in  a  tree,  while  during  the  day 
the  station  is  worked  from  the  ground. 


2G8  MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS. 


Repeating  Stations. 


It  may  happen  that  very  important  messages  received  by 
signals  must  be  verified  by  repeating  back  from  the  receiv- 
ing station,  signal  by  signal,  each  signal  used  by  the  send- 
ing station,  in  conveying  the  message.  There  can  be  no 
error  in  signals  thus  verified,  and  the  correct  transmission 
of  the  message  is  made  certain.  This  process  has  been  re- 
ferred to  while  describing  the  different  codes. 

For  such  a  verification,  each  signal  must  be  repeated  by 
the  receiving  station,  as  soon  as  it  is  made  at  the  sending 
station. 

The  signalists  and  their  signalmen,  at  each  station,  face 
toward  each  other,  the  signalmen  standing  each  with  his 
flag  and  staff  in  the  first  position  for  signals.  The  chief  of 
each  of  the  corresponding  stations  has  his  glass  fixed  upon 
the  opposite  station,  and  takes  his  post  at  the  glass.  The 
sending  of  the  message  is  commenced.  As  the  chief  at  the 
receiving  station  notices  each  signal  completed  by  the  send- 
ing station,  he  orders  that  signal  at  his  own  station.  The 
chief  at  the  sending  station  pauses  after  each  signal  of  the 
message  made  at  his  own  station,  until  he  has  noted  that 
signal  repeated  correctly  at  the  receiving  station. 

The  symbol-numbers  made  at  each  station  must  be  iden- 
tical. The  signals  used  may  be  different,  provided  they 
signify  the  same  numbers.  Thus,  if  "  one-two"  is  made  at 
one  station,  "  one-two"  must  be  repeated  at  the  other, 
though  the  symbol-numbers,  "one"  and  "two,"  may  be  in- 
dicated at  one  station  by  different  signs  from  those  which 
indicate  the  same  numbers  at  the  other  station.  The  mes- 
sages are  thus  transmitted,  signal  bv  signal,  the  sender 
pausing  after  each  signal,  until  he  sees  a  similar  signal  shown, 
complete  and  correct,  at  the  receiving  station.  It  is  then 
certain  that  his  own  signal  has  been  seen  and  noted.  A  rec- 
ord of  the  signals  shown  at  each  station  is  kept  at  the  other. 


MANUAL  OF    SIGNALS.  2G9 

This  record  and  the  record  of  messages  sent  must  agree. 
The  practice  of  repeating  signals  was  habitual  when  sema- 
phores were  much  employed  for  telegraphing.  It  is  used 
with  advantage,  in  many  instances,  with  field-signals,  par- 
ticularly with  those  which  are  made  by  positions. 

A  message  may  be  repeated,  letter  by  letter,  or  word  by 
word,  or  sentence  by  sentence ;  or  the  whole  message  is  re- 
corded as  received,  and  is  repeated  back  from  the  receiving 
station. 

The  occasions  for  such  exactness  as  requires  the  trouble 
of  repetition  must  be  determined  by  the  commanding  offi- 
cers, or  by  the  chiefs  of  stations  dispatching  the  messages. 

It  should  be  made  habitual,  rather  than  incur  any  risks 
from  the  incorrect  transmission  of  a  single  message.  Where 
cipher  is  constantly  employed  the  verification  insures  its 
accuracy,  and  will  sometimes  prevent  the  trouble  in  inter- 
pretation which  may  arise  from  an  error. 

The  repetition  of  signals,  for  the  transmission  of  messages 
over  long  lines,  is  differently  managed. 

"Where  repetition  is  to  be  habitual  over  long  lines,  some 
of  the  simple  semaphores,  once  of  common  use,  afford  per- 
haps the  most  rapid  and  available  means  lor  communication. 
They  have  been  improved  by  long  experience  to  a  degree 
which  renders  them  almost  perfect.  For  ordinary  ranges,  and 
for  common  military  uses,  any  of  the  different  manual  codes, 
heretofore  described,  are  always  available.  Permanent  sem- 
aphores need  not  be  used  except  for  convenience,  or  when  a 
lon<4  line  is  to  be  worked  continuously  with  a  feeble  force. 

Temporary  semaphores  may  be  of  the  most  simple  struc- 
ture, as  before  described.  The  human  figure,  light  clad,  so 
as  to  show  prominently  on  a  dark  ground,  or  dark  clad 
when  exposed  against  the  sky,  makes,  with  its  movable 
arms,  one  of  the  best  semaphores.  Thus  a  man,  with  his 
coat  off,  is  an  upright  with  two  movable  and  jointed  arms. 
There  is  hardly  any  kind  of  position-signals  but  can  be  made 


270  MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS. 

by  placing  the  arms  of  this  man  in  different  positions.  This 
human  semaphore  is  visible,  and  the  signals  made  by  it  are 
legible,  with  a  good  telescope,  for  a  number  of  miles.  To 
make  the  signals  more  distinct,  at  a  great  distance,  disks, 
attached  to  rods,  or  flags,  or  brilliantly  colored  and  broad 
staves,  or  any  showy  object,  may  be  held  in  the  hands  and 
moved  as  semaphoric  arms.  To  give  elevation,  the  signal- 
man may  be  upon  a  staging,  or  perched  upon  a  standing 
tree-trunk,  the  tree-top  being  removed. 

When  a  message  is  to  be  repeated  over  a  line  of  stations, 
by  either  transient  or  permanent  signals,  a  warning  signal 
is  first  given,  in  order  that  there  may  be  proper  attention  at 
the  intermediate  stations  before  commencing  the  message. 
This  warning  may  be  a  message,  as  thus — "  repeat  to" 
(naming  the  town) ;  or  it  is  a  concerted  signal,  as  both  arms 
of  the  semaphore  pointing  up.  This  warning  is  sent  from 
station  to  station,  until  it  reaches  the  station  named ;  this 
station  replies  by  a  concerted  signal  of  "ready,"  and  each 
immediate  station,  repeating  this  signal  back  to  the  first 
station,  stands  ready  to  repeat  the  message  which  the  first 
station  commences  to  forward,  signal  by  signal,  at  once  on 
receiving  the  ready  signal ;  the  intermediate  stations  re- 
peating each  signal  letter  and  number  as  fast  as  they  are 
received;  as,  for  instance,  was  a  message  to  be  sent  from 
Washington  to  Frederick,  the  officer  at  Washington  would 
first  send  over  the  signal  line  the  warning  to  "repeat  to 
Frederick."  This  warning  is  repeated  from  station  to  sta- 
tion. On  receiving  it,  the  officer  at  Frederick  makes  the 
ready  signal,  which  signal  is  repeated  back,  from  station  to 
station,  to  Washington.  Each  station  then  stands  ready  to 
repeat  the  signal  message  which  is  to  follow.  On  receiving 
the  ready  signal,  the  officer  at  Washington  sends  forward 
the  communication,  each  station  repeating  each  letter-signal 
in  its  turn  as  it  receives  them. 

When  a  message  is  being  thus  repeated  through  a  nam- 


MANUAL  OF  SIGNALS.  271 

bcr  of  signal-stations,  the  officer  at  each  station  will  call  the 
proper  numbers  for  each  letter,  as  lie  receives  them,  to  his 
flagman,  who,  placed  facing  from  the  sending  station  and 
toward  the  station  next  in  line,  makes  each  signal  in  its 
proper  order.  Each  officer,  after  signalling  from  his  station 
each  letter,  waits  until  he  sees  it  repeated  at  the  next  station 
before  he  signals  another.  There  are  two  men,  with  tele- 
scopes,  at  each  repeating  station:  one  notes  the  correct  re- 
ception, the  other  the  transmission  of  the  signals. 

The  advantage  of  permanent  signals  here  becomes  appa- 
rent, for  a  permanent  signal  may  be  kept  in  view  until  it  is 
repeated  with  certain  correctness.  All  signals  made  at  the 
repeating  station  will  appear  to  the  observers  at  the  send- 
ing station  reversed.  When  permanent  signals  are  used, 
each  sending  station  keeps  its  signal  in  view  until  that  signal 
has  been  repeated  at  the  next  station,  when  it  resumes  the 
position  ready,  and  waits  the  next  signal  from  the  sending 
station. 

Long  lines  of  signal-stations,  with  a  small  military  force 
at  eaeh,  being  thus  each  in  communication  with  the  other, 
may  constitute  picket-lines  of  great  length  and  importance  for 
holding  and  keeping  under  observation  lines  of  communica- 
tion, rivers,  or  extensive  tracts  of  country  liable  to  incursion 
or  to  be  ravaged  by  predatory  bands  of  the  enemy ; — each 
station,  having  the  power  of  communieating  with  those  on 
either  side  of  it,  has  virtually  the  advantage  of  their  support, 
and  no  one  can  be  attacked  without  the  enemy  being  ex- 
posed to  the  concentration  of  forces  called  for  by  signals 
from  different  stations. 

So,  when  an  army  has  for  its  duty  only  to  watch  a  certain 
line,  by  a  judicious  arrangement  of  signal-posts  upon  that 
line,  a  heavy  force  lying  back  of  it,  it  can  be  made  almost 
impossible  for  the  enemy  to  pass  the  line  without  encounter- 
ing concentrated  forces. 

A  river  passing  through  an  enemy's  country,  with  com- 


272  MANUAL  OF  SIGNALS. 

merce  upon  it  liable  to  interruption  by  guerrilla  attacks,  or 
by  forces  of  the  enemy,  can,  by  the  establishment  of  small 
fortified  signal-stations,  say  at  a  distance  of  nine  or  ten  miles 
apart,  garrisoned  and  communicating,  be  virtually  picketed 
and  be  made  safe  for  commerce.  This  was  proposed  during 
the  war  in  the  case  of  the  Mississippi. 

On  river  lines,  where  the  protection  of  commerce  is  of  im- 
portance, such  stations  afford  at  once  shelter  to  the  moving 
vessels,  are  able  to  warn  them,  while  at  a  distance,  of 
danger,  as  of  the  location  of  the  enemy  upon  the  banks  ;  or, 
in  case  of  attack,  to  call  to  their  assistance  the  vessels  of 
Avar  assigned  to  the  duty  of  patrolling  the  stream.  On  the 
great  river  courses  of  this  country,  picket  lines  of  this  de- 
scription, guarding  our  rivers  passing  hostile  territory,  have 
an  especial  usefulness. 

The  communications  may  be  by  telegraphic  wires,  until 
the  near  approach  of  an  enemy  disables  that  mode  of  com- 
munication. 

The  military  reader  will  comprehend  how  the  beautiful 
plans  for  chronosemic  signals  would  be  employed  in  such 
eases,  as  above  described,  by  repetitions,  and  how  exactly 
they  would  indicate  the  point  endangered. 


COMPLICATING  SIGNALS. 

Signals  are  complicated  for  the  purpose  of  disguise.  For 
example :  several  things,  positions,  motions,  each  one  of  which 
may  of  itself  represent  an  elementary  signal,  are  assumed. 
Now,  in  a  code  of  two  elements,  any  one  of  these  indications 
given  may  signify  the  "  one"  element  as  often  as  it  is  shown, 
Avliile  the  "  two"  element  is  signified  whenever  any  one  of 
all  the  rest  is  shown.  Thus,  if  five  motions  are  given,  and 
we  propose  to  complicate  an  alphabet  of  two  elements,  in 
which  the  letters  of  the  alphabet  shall  read  "A"  is  "  two- 


MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS.  273 


two"  "22;'  "B"  is  "two-one-one-two"  "2112,"  "C"  is 
"one-two-one"  "  121,"  and  so  on:  Suppose  the  five  motions 
given  are  known  as  the  first,  second,  third,  fourth,  and  fifth 
motions,  and  are  designated  by  the  figures  1,  2,  3,  4,  and  5 ; 
the  motion  "  1,"  as  often  as  shown,  may  signify  the  element 
"one,"  while  either  of  motions  "2,"  or  "3,"  or  "4,"  or  "5" 
may  signify,  whenever  shown,  the  element  "two."  Then, 
in  the  example  given,  "A,"  which  is  known  as  "two-two" 
"22,"  may  be  written  or  signalled  and  read  with  equal 
ease  when  shown  as  "  two-two"  "22,"  or  "two-three"  "23," 
or  "two-four"  "24,"  or  "three-three"  "33,"  or  "four-five" 
"  45,"  or  "  live-two"  "52,"  etc.  "B,"  which  is  known  as  « '  two- 
one-one-two"  "2112,"  may  be  written,  or  signalled,  or  read 
as  "two-one-one-two,"  "2112;"  or  as  "three-one-one-four," 
"3114;"  or  "five-one-one-five,"  "5115;  or  "two-one-one- 
three,"  "2113;"  or  "four-one-one-three,"  "4113;"  or  "five- 
one-one-two,"  "5112,"  etc.  "  C,"  which  is  known  as  "one- 
two-one"  "  121,"  may  be  written,  or  signalled,  or  read  as 
"one-two-one,"  "121;"  or  "one-five-one,"  "151;"  or  "one 
three-one,"  "131  ;"  or  "  one-four-one,"  "  141,"  etc.,  and  so  on 
for  the  alphabet. 

Or  the  element  "  one"  might  be  sionified  bv  several  si<nis. 
while  the  element  "  two"  is  signified  by  a  single  sign.  Or 
the  element  "  one"  might  be  signified  by  each  of  two  or 
three  or  more  signs,  while  the  element  "two"  is  also  sig- 
nified by  each  of  two  or  three  or  more  signs.  Thus  four 
motions  being  used,  a  motion  up  or  a  motion  to  the  right 
may  each  signify  the  element  "one;"  while  a  motion  down 
or  a  motion  to  the  left  may  each  signify  the  element  "two." 
Or  all  the  motions  that  can  be  made  on  the  right  of  a  man 
may  stand  for  "  ones,"  while  all  the  motions  that  can  be 
made  on  his  left  may  stand  for  "  twos." 

In  a  similar  manner,  if  the  alphabetic  code  is  of  three  ele- 
ments, each  of  the  elements  may  be  represented  by  several 
things  or  signs.     And  so  in  codes  of  four  or  five,  or  what- 

12* 


274  MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS. 

ever  number  of  elements,  we  may  have  each  signal  element 
signified  by  two  or  three  or  more  signs. 

It  is  not  material,  of  course,  what  may  be  the  elementary 
signs  selected.  Thus  two  or  three  different  positions  of  the 
arm  of  a  signalist  may  each  stand  for  the  same  element  or 
symbol  in  any  letter. 

Or  if  flashes  are  used,  different-colored  flashes  may  signify 
the  same  element.  Or  different  sounds  may  have  similar 
meanings.  Or  if  flags  are  used,  several  different  flags  may 
signify  each  the  same  element  or  symbol.  Thus  with  a 
code  of  three  elements  ;  if  there  are  at  hand  nine  flags,  three 
different  flags  may  be  set  aside  for  each  element,  and  each 
of  these  flags  signifies  its  element  whenever  shown. 

Or  with  an  alphabetic  code  of  six  elements,  twelve 
flags  may  be  used,  each  element  signified  by  either  of  two 
flags. 

The  letters  for  message  code-signals  for  brief  codes  may 
be  shown  in  this  way  with  complications  which  defy  in- 
terpretation. 

A  message  can  be  written  to  be  sent  in  complicated  sig- 
nals. Thus,  assuming  that  the  ten  motions  will  be  for  the 
ten  numerals,  always  those  described  for  the  Code  of  Ten 
Elements,  we  may  write  out  the  symbols  of  a  message 
written  in  a  code  of  two  elements  in  six  figures,  allowing: 
three  different  figures  for  each  symbol. 

If  the  message  is  now  signalled  as  it  is  written,  it  will  ap- 
pear in  complicated  signals,  seemingly  of  six  elementary 
signs,  while  to  the  reader  they  represent  but  two. 

Messages  prepared  for  codes  of  three  or  four  or  other 
numbers  of  elements  may  be  complicated  in  the  same  way. 

The  correspondent  must  be  informed  by  preconcerted 
rules  how  many  elements  it  is  intended  to  convey,  and  how 
many  and  what  symbols  are  to  be  used  in  the  complication 
to  represent  each  element. 

The   subject   of   complicating   signals   has   been   before 


MANUAL   OF    SKiNALS.  275 

briefly  mentioned  while  treating  of  the  different  alphabetic 
codes.     It  affords  a  clue  to  many  curious  plans   for  signa' 
and  for  ciphers. 


MESSAGES   BY  MESSENGERS. 

There  is  record  of  many  ingenious  contrivances  to  send 
messages  in  secret,  when  it  has  been  impossible  for  any 
reason  to  prepare  a  cipher. 

An  ancient  plan  was  to  inwrap  a  slightly  tapering  rod 
with  a  long  and  narrow  strip  of  paper,  in  such  way  that  the 
clues  of  the  strip  were  in  contact  throughout  its  length. 
On  this  paper,  in  this  position,  the  message  was  written 
from  end  to  end  of  the  rod,  and  in  lines  one  beneath  the 
other  for  its  circumference.  The  receiver  was  furnished 
with  a  similar  rod. 

The  message  being  written,  the  paper  was  unwrapped 
from  the  rod,  and  so  appeared  a  strip  of  paper  covered  with 
fragments  of  words  without  apparent  connection.  It  was 
so  forwarded  by  messenger.  Upon  its  receipt,  the  receiver, 
carefully  wrapping  it  again  upon  the  rod  in  his  possession, 
found  the  fragmentary  words  conjoined  and  bearing  a 
plainly  written  message. 

Messages  written  with  or  without  cipher  may  be  con- 
cealed for  transmission  in  the  common  wooden  lead-pencil, 
it  being  first  opened  and  hollowed  for  the  purpose,  and 
then  joined  as  it  was  originally  ;  or  they  may  be  packed 
in  hollow  canes,  from  which  the  handle  or  ferule  easily  re? 
moves. 

They  have  been  packed  in  bullets,  or  in  brass  buttons, 
etc. 

A  safe  way  is  to  carry  the  message  or  paper  on  top  of  the 
charge  in  a  loaded  pistol  or  musket ;  it  is  so  easily  disposed 
of  in  case  of  surprise  or  capture. 


276  MANUAL   OF    SIGNALS. 

Papers  are  sometimes  worked  in  betAveen  the  leathers  of 
the  soles  of  boots  or  shoes,  in  the  linings  of  clothing,  etc. 

The  devices  for  this  kind  of  transportation  are  so  numer- 
ous that  these  are  given  only  as  specimens  of  the  plans. 
There  is  hardly  any  article  which  it  is  safe  to  allow  a  sus- 
pected person  passing  the  lines  to  carry,  until  it  has  been 
rigorously  examined. 


CRYPTOGRAMS. 

Alphabets  may  be  composed  of  hieroglyphic  characters. 
Tims,  take  any  number  of  marks  or  figures,  however 
curious  or  complicated ;  devise  an  alphabet  of  one,  two, 
three,  or  four  elements,  as  the  case  may  be ;  designate  a 
number  of  marks  or  signs  to  correspond  to  the  number  of 
the  elements,  by  numbers,  as  one,  two,  three,  four,  or  five ; 
then  compose  each  letter  by  drawing  and  joining  together, 
from  left  to  right,  those  marks  which  stand  for  the  numbers 
of  the  letter  combination  in  the  devised  alphabet. 
The  following  is  an  interesting  illustration: 
It  is  very  likely  that  the  arrow-head,  which  seems  to  be 
a  sign  used  everywhere  by  savages  in  their  first  attempts  at 
writing,  appeared  often  and  was  prominent  among  the  signs 
of  early  hieroglyphs.  With  the  earliest  specimens  of  re- 
corded language  which  have  come  down  to  us,  and  which 
have  drawn  the  attention  of  philologists,  are  the  specimens 
known  as  the  cuneiform  or  arrow-head  character.  All  the 
characters  of  this  writing  are  made  up  of  arrow-heads.  It 
is  stnttd  that  arrow-head  characters  are  found  stamped  on 
each  of  the  bricks  of  the  tower  of  Babel.  Specimens  of  tins 
character  are  rare,  and  to  but  very  few  are  they  intelligible. 
None  but  those  savans  who  have  devoted  themselves  to  the 
study  can  either  write  or  read  them,  and  few  but  profound 


MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS.  277 

scholars  would  attempt  it.     It  is  a  curious  experiment,  and 

one  illustrative  of  the  manner  in  which  alphabets  are  formed, 
to  show  how  easily  this  character  can  l>e  turned  to  the  most 
common  uses.  To  form  an  alphabet  of  cuneiform  charac- 
ters, and  to  write  the  English  language  in  that  character, 
is  one  of  the  simplest  acts. 

The  arrow-headed  or  wedge-shaped  line  is,  perhaps,  the 
plainest  mark  which  one,  setting  out  to  devise  an  alphabet 
of  characters,  can  use.  It  is  only  a  mark  broader  at  one  end 
than  at  the  other,  so  that  it  can  be  seen  in  which  way  it  is 
pointed.  Such  a  line  can  be  drawn  on  paper  in  four  ways, 
pointing  up,  pointing  down,  pointing  to  the  right,  pointing 
to  the  left.  It  can  represent  four  elements.  Now,  there 
can  be  two  sizes  of  such  a  line — a  large  and  a  small  size. 
The  small  wedge  or  arrow  line  can  also,  on  paper,  point 
up,  point  down,  point  right,  and  point  left.  It  can  thus 
represent  four  more  elements  or  four  symbols.  Using, 
then,  two  arrow-heads  or  wedges,  large  and  small,  there  can 
be  represented,  drawn  on  paper,  eight  distinct  elements 
or  eight  symbols.  These  may  be  designated  the  four  posi- 
tions of  the  large  arrow-head,  as  one,  two,  three,  four ;  the 
four  positions  of  the  small  arrow-head,  as  five,  six,  seven, 
eight. 

Now  these  large  and  small  arrow-heads,  drawn  on  paper, 
are  to  be  used  placed  together  in  different  combinations  to 
represent  the  characters  of  the  English  alphabet.  To  do 
this  it  is  only  necessary  to  devise,  by  the  rules  for  forming 
alphabets  before  given,  an  alphabet  of  twenty-six  letter- 
combinations  having  eight  elements  given,  and  to  draw  on 
paper,  placed  close  together,  and  properly  placed,  the  arrow- 
heads of  the  proper  sizes,  Avhich  are  to  stand  for  each  letter. 
The  total  of  the  combinations  which  can  be  made  with  two 
arrow-heads,  using  the  four  positions  for  each,  will  be  more 
than  are  necessary  for  any  alphabet.     Or  the  alphabet-code 


278  MANUAL   OF  SIGNALS. 

to  be  devised  may  be  of  a  less  number  of  elements,  as  of 
one,  or  two,  or  three,  or  four  elements.  It  is  not  necessary, 
then,  to  use  so  many  positions  or  so  many  sizes  of  the  arrow- 
heads. It  would  be  needed  to  join  together  arrow-heads  in 
two  or  three  positions  only. 

In  such  examples,  carefully  studied  and  thoroughly  un- 
derstood, may  be  found  a  key  for  the  preparation  of  many 
hieroglyphic  ciphers ;  and  we  realize  by  them,  as  it  is  im- 
portant we  should,  how  readily  any  other  characters  may 
have  the  same  force  and  meaning  as  those  to  which  we  are 
used,  and  which  we  have  come  to  regard  as  if  they  were  the 
only  forms  of  letters. 

Suppose,  as  another  illustration,  that,  for  a  code  of  two 
elements,  all  straight  lines  or  combinations  of  straight  lines 
are  to  stand  for  "  ones,"  and  all  curved  lines  or  combinations 
of  curved  lines  for  "  twos  ;"  we  see  how  easily  any  marks  or 
signs,  the  most  complicated  or  grotesque,  chosen  by  us,  may 
indicate  the  different  elements  in  every  letter,  antl  how  illim- 
itable is  the  power  of  forming  hieroglyphic  ciphers.  To 
thus  write  the  English  language  in  arrow-head  cipher  or 
to  systematically  devise  hieroglyphs,  is  at  once  a  source  of 
amusement,  and  is  a  valuable  practice  to  the  signalist,  who 
may  be  called  upon,  at  any  time,  to  form  a  cipher  for  mili- 
tary use. 

These  modes  of  devising  alphabets  on  a  systematized 
plan  by  numerical  elements  afford,  perhaps,  not  impossible 
illustrations  of  the  modes  of  making  the  first  alphabetic 
characters.  It  is  probable,  however,  that  the  characters 
representative  of  sounds  were  formed  with  certain  elements, 
it  is  true,  of  necessity,  but  with  those  elements  conjoined 
arbitrarily  and  without  a  plan. 

It  is  proposed  here  to  explain  two  or  three  only  of  the 
plans  for  forming  cryptographic  alphabets,  and  to  leave  to 
ingenuity  to  devise  the  innumerable  other  forms  which  may 
be  given. 


MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS.  279 

Suppose  Arrow-heads  representing-  the  figure-symbols 
are — 

J^  stands  for  l,y  stands  for  2,  ^-  stands  for  3,  -^  stands 
for  4,  x  stands  for  5,  Y  stands  for  6,  >-  stands  for  7,  -<  stands 
for  8. 

Then,  A  is    12,   is  ^Y  J  B   is   13>   is  A>^  5  C  is  14>  is 

X-<;  D  is  22,  is  YY;  Mis 52, is xY;  N  is  53>  is  *>^  5 

Y  is  85,  is  -<A  ;   and    so  for   the  letters  of  the  alphabet. 
(See  Code  of  Eight  Elements.) 
The  message,  "  We  move  at  midnight,"  is,  in 

Signal  Numbers: 
83  23—52  54  82  23—12  73—52  34  22  53  34  32  33  73  ; 

Cryptogram  : 

HX  Y^  aY  a^  <y  Y>-  AY  ►> 

xY  x  YY  a^  >~<  ^Y  £  >■>■ 

Or  referring:  to  the  General  Service  Code  of  two  elements 
(page  53,)  assume  that  all  large  arrow-heads,  however  point- 
ing, are  "ones;"  all  small  arrow-heads,  however  pointing, 
k-t\vos."     Then, 

"  We  move  at  midnight." 

Signal  Numbers. 
1121  12—1221  21  1222  12—22  2—1221  1  222  11  1  2211  122  2 

Cryptogram. 

YY-Y  A*  YfA  ^Y  Yt  Yr  "V  a 
AaaA   >-   m   YA   Y   SYY   At   r 


280  MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS. 

Or  all  straight  lines  or  combinations  of  straight  lines  are 
"  ones  ;"  all  curved  lines  or  combinations  of  curved  lines  are 
"  twos."     Then, 

"  We  move  at  midnight." 

Cryptogram. 

'56     ^  ^  Z> D  -   §' 

It  is  needed  only  to  keep  the  letters  and  words  clearly- 
separated,  and  to  show  markedly  .the  distinction  betweeu 
the  straight  and  curved  lines. 


With  the  rules  that  have  already  been  given  for  the  for- 
mation of  alphabets,  it  is  plain  that  messages  may  be  sent  as 
in  bouquets  of  flowers.  If  the  alphabet  to  be  used  was  one 
of  five  elements,  five  kinds  of  flowers  or  leaves  would  be 
necessary ;  only  two  of  them  need  be  used  together  to  in- 
dicate any  letter.  The  buds,  leaves,  etc.,  placed  together  in 
sequence  in  a  bouquet,  would  indicate  letters,  and  thus 
words  might  be  formed.  Quite  a  lengthy  message  might  be 
sent  in  one  of  the  large  basket-bouquets  that  are  sometimes 
seen.  So  messages  may  be  sent  by  nails  on  the  shoes  of  a 
messenger,  there  being  two  or  three  different  kinds  of  nails. 
Thus  small-headed  nails  to  stand  for  "  ones,"  larger  nails  for 
"twos,"  still  larger  for  "threes:"  the  nails  driven  in  rows 
across  the  sole,  as  if  to  strengthen  it.  Or  messages  may  be 
sent  by  pictures  and  drawings,  which  he  will  carry.  In 
drawing  the  representations  of  shingles  upon  a  roof,  or  in 
any  drawing  of  a  fence  or  of  a  flock  of  birds,  letters  indi- 
cated by  long  and  short  marks,  or  by  different  kinds  of 
marks,  may  be  ingeniously  represented.     So  long  messages 


MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS. 


281 


may  be  sent,  the  letters  being  represented  by  different  fig- 
ares,  in  papers  which  appear  to  be  grocers'  or  commissary 
bills,  and  which,  in  the  search  of  a  prisoner,  would  hardly 
attract  attention.     For  example: 

"Office  of  A.  A.  C.  S. 

"  Memorandum  of  stores  issued. 

Pork  (bbls.) 2551 

Beef  (rations) 33,531651 

Salt  (sacks) 1154 

Coffee             )  ,      .       v  33,424143 

Hard-bread  J"  lratlons>> 42,223254." 


The  General   Service  Homographic  Code  is  assumed  as 
used.      (Page  144.) 
•  A  word  is  enciphered  on  each  line. 

Where  two  or  more  lines  are  connected  by  brackets,  the 
figures  opposite  form  one  word. 

To  interpret:  Point  off  the  figures  by  twos;  write  over 
each  two  the  letters  indicated. 

The  message  is,  "  We  move  at  midnight." 

Or  letters  may  be  sent  in  ludicrous  sketches.  Thus  let- 
ters may  be  indicated  by  little  figures  of  men. 

For  instance,  those  standing  upright  with  neither  feet  nor 
hands  raised  to  be  "ones,"  those  holding  up  a  right  arm 
to  be  "  twos,"  those  holding  up  a  left  arm  to  be  "  threes," 
those  with  right  foot  raised  to  be  "  fours,"  those  with  left 
foot  raised  to  be  "  fives,"  those  with  both  feet  raised  to  be 


"  sixes." 


282  MANUAL  OF  SIGNALS. 

To  interpret :  Point  off  the  forms  by  twos,  place  under 
each  the  figure  for  which  it  stands,  ascertain  the  letters  in- 
dicated. 

The  message  is,  "We  move  at  midnight." 

These  illustrations  are  made  as  suggestive  of  those  which 
may  be  formed.  Spaces  have  been  left  between  the  words 
to  lessen  the  labor  of  the  reader;  these  may  be  omitted  in 
actual  use. 

The  facts  may  seem  rather  curious  than  useful.  They  are 
given  to  impress  upon  the  mind  of  the  reader  the  infinite 
varieties  of  cryptograms  he  can,  with  a  little  practice,  have 
at  his  command.     (See  "Complicating  Signals,"  page  272.) 

Among  the  best  disguises  of  letters  is  to  represent  some 
one  or  more  of  the  elements  by  more  than  one  symbol.  For 
instance :  use  six  symbols  for  an  alphabetical  code  of  two 
elements.  Let  any  three  of  the  symbols  represent  the  first 
element,  and  the  remaining  three  the  second  element. 

Then,  1,  2,  3  are  "ones,"  and  4,  5,  6  are  "twos." 

Then,  "We  move  at  midnight" — 

Or,  "1121  12—1221  21  1222  12—22  2—1221  1  222  11  1 
2211  122  2"— 

May  be,  "  1243  26—3452  63  2456  34—45  6—1642  3  444 
32  2  5423  365  4." 

Or  it  maybe,  "3263  35—2463  52  2655  35—64  5—3652  2 
556  13  3  4532  254  6." 

There  are  many  such  changes. 

Or,  still  using  a  code  of  two  elements,  let  any  figures  up 
to  three,  or  any  other  figures  agreed  upon,  read  as  "ones," 
and  all  other  figures  read  as  "twos." 

Then  the  same  message  may  be : 

"3293  28—2693  82  3768  25—97  9—2571  2  547  22  3  6523 
168  7." 

And  on  such  plans  the  changes  can  be  infinitely  extended. 

Of  course,  any  other  marks  or  written  signs,  of  any  kind, 


MANUAL  OF   SIGNALS.  283 

might  be  used  as  symbols  instead  of  figures,  and  then  be  com- 
bined in  this  way  to  stand  for  the  letters  of  any  language. 
Alphabets  can  be  formed  in  this  manner,  and  pages  can  be 
written,  in  which  no  letter  will  appear  twice  in  the  same 
guise;  and  indeed  it  will  be  impossible  for  the  writer,  with- 
out some  effort,  to  ever  make  a  letter  twice  alike. 

An  illustration  of  this  fact  is  had  in  the  cryptogram  of 
straight  and  curved  lines.      (Page  280.) 

So  with  colors:  as  having  six  or  any  number  of  colors. 
Let  three  of  the  colors  represent  the  "  one,"  and  the  other 
three  the  "two,"  as  often  as  any  one  of  them  is  exhibited. 

For  illustration  :  Suppose  the  colors  to  be  red,  green, 
yellow,  blue,  orange,  purple.  Designate  them  by  initials, 
as  r,  g,  y,  b,  o,  p ;  then  r,  g,  y  are  "  ones,"  b,  o,  p  are  "  twos." 

A  messao-e  might  be  exhibited  in  marks  of  colors,  as 
follows  :  The  color  being  substituted  in  each  place  for  its 
initial. 

"  We  move  at  midnight." 

1121     12—1221     21     1222    12—22    2—1221    1    222   11     1 
rgby  gb    yopg  br    gbop   rp     op  b     gopr  r  pob    gr  y 

2211    122  2. 

pbrg  ybo  p. 

Or  it  might  be  written  in  many  different  arrangements 
of  these  color  marks, — all  representing,  however,  the  same 
symbols,  "one"  and  "two,"  and  in  the  same  arrangement. 

Ciphers  of  these  kinds  are  safe,  and  sometimes  valu- 
able for  military  uses.  As  an  example  of  another  mode 
of  writing,  let  it  be  supposed  that  it  was  agreed  that  an 
alphabet  should  be  constructed  to  be  of  live  elements;  that 
the  first  might  be  represented  by  any  one  of  five  letters  of 
the  alphabet;  the  second  by  any  one  of  other  five  letters 
of  the  alphabet;   the  third  by  any  one  of  other  five  let- 


284  MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS. 

ters ;  the  fourth  by  any  one  of  other  five  letters ;  the  fifth 
by  any  one  of  other  five  letters.  The  end  of  a  word  to 
be  indicated  by  a  blotted  letter,  or  by  a  flourish,  or  by  an 
imperfect  letter,  or  by  any  one  of  a  hundred  signs  ingenuity 
would  devise.  It  would  be  very  difficult  to  translate  a  mes- 
sage formed  in  this  manner. 

For  illustration,  the  message,  "Fleet  sails  to-morrow." 
Give  to  the  alphabet  the  enumeration  of  a  code  of  five  ele- 
ments.   (See  alphabet  of  five  elements.)    Form  a  table  thus : 

1  is  a  f  k  pu  v — read  thus,  "  1"  is  a,  or  f,  or  k,  or  p,  or 
u,  or  v. 

2  is  b  g  1  q  w — read  thus,  "  2"  is  b,  or  g,  or  1,  or  q,  or  w. 

3  is  c  h  m  r  x — read  thus,  "  3"  is  c,  or  h,  or  m,  or  r,  or  x. 

4  is  d  i  n  s  y — read  thus,  "  4"  is  d,  or  i,  or  n,  or  s,  or  y. 

5  is  e  j  o  t  z — read  thus,  "  5"  is  e,  or  j,  or  o,  or  t,  or  z. 
Now,  F  is  "  12,"  is  say  "fb."     It  might  be  aq,  or  kl,  or 

any  conjunction  of  any  of  the  five  letters  standing  for  "  1" 
with  any  of  the  five  letters  standing  for  "  2." 

L  is  "  23,"  is  say  "  qm."  It  might  be  any  conjunction  of 
the  letters  standing  for  "  2"  and  "  3." 

E  is  "51,"  is  say  "  ta,"  or  any  conjunction  of  the  letters 
for  "5"  and  "1." 

E  is  "51,"  is  say  "  zp" — differing  from  the  preceding  "E." 

T  is  "54,"  is  say  "  ey,"  or  other  conjunction  of  letters  "  5" 
and  "4." 

Thus  for  the  word  "  Fleet"  we  write  "  Fbqmtazpey." 
Continuing  thus  we  find  the  whole  message  may  be  written 
"  Fbqmtazpey  nyapnggrdi  jiemcrzxcimnjcbo" — Fleet  sails 
to-morrow.  To  decipher:  As  each  letter  is  known  to  be 
here  represented  by  two  letters,  we  point  off  this  cipher  by 
twos,  and  referring  to  the  table  we  find  : 

"  fb"  is  "  12"  is  F,  "  qm"  is  "  23"  is  "  1,"  and  so  on. 

It  will  be  observed  that  following  this  plan  the  same 
words,  though  often  written  in  the  cipher,  might  never 
twice  appear  in  the  same  guise. 


MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS. 


28; 


The  following  is  an  interesting  cryptogram,  but  lias  the 
disadvantage  that,  as  the  characters  do  not  change  in  the 

same  message,  it  is  decipherable.     It  is  given  for  the  reason 
that  it  may  be  sometimes  encountered. 

The  letters  of  the  alphabet  are  represented  by  the  figures 
as  given  in  the  plan  : 


a  b  c 
12  3 


def 
12  3 


g  h  i 

1   2  3 


1  2  3 


m  n  o 
1  2  3 


pqr 
1  2  3 


s  t  u 
12  3 


V  wx 

1  2  3 


yz 

1  2 


It  will  be  seen  that  there  are  three  figures  in  each  space, 
except  the  last,  in  which  are  two.  There  is  thus  a  figure 
for  each  letter  to  be  represented. 

Then  the  first  three  letters  of  the  alphabet— first,  second, 
and  third,  A,  B,  C — are  represented"  respectively  by  the 
three  figures  in  the  first  space  of  the  form  ;  or,  as  they  would 
be  written,  A  is  1  |,  B  is  2  |,  C  is  3j.  The  second  three  let- 
ters of  the  alphabet,  D,  E,  F,  are  represented  by  the  three 
figures  in  the  second  space  of  the  form ;  or,  as  they  would 
be  written,  D  is  1 1 1,  E  is  [2_|,  F  is  [3j.  The  third  three 
letters  of  the  alphabet,  G,  H,  I,  are  represented  by  the 
figures  in  the  third  space  of  the  form,  as  G  is  jj. ,  H  is  [2 , 
I  is  ]  3  ;  and  so  on  for  all  the  rest,  the  letters  of  the  alpha- 
bet, in  their  usual  sequence,  being  set  off  by  threes,  and 
each  letter  of  each  three  being  represented  by  one  of  the 
figures  found  in  the  corresponding  numbered  compartment 
of  the  form,  and  exhibited  in  an  outline  similar  to  the  out- 
line of  that  compartment  of  the  form  in  which  it  is  found. 
Thus : 

"  We  move  at  midnight" — 


2||2|    |1||3||1||2|    1|   2|    |1|  |3    |1||2|  |  3  |J_  \2_  2 


286  MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS. 

The  figures  need  not  necessarily  be  1,2,  3,  etc.,  in  the 
usual  sequence  in  each  compartment.  The  numeral  digits 
might  be  used,  as  1,  2,  3,  in  the  first  compartment;  4,  5,  0, 
in  the  second  ;  7,  8,  9,  in  the  third:  commencing  anew,  1, 
2,  3,  in  the  fourth  ;  4,  5,  6,  in  the  fifth,  and  thus  on.  In 
such  case  D  would  be  |  4  |,  E  |  5  |,  etc.  Or  it  might  be  con- 
certed that  the  letters  of  the  alphabet  were  not  to  follow 
each  other  in  the  usual  sequence,  but  in  some  other  order. 

The  cipher  is  capable  of  many  changes. 


SIGNALLING  IN"   CIPHER. 

If  signals  are  to  be  displayed  in  the  presence  of  an  enemy, 
they  must  be  guarded  by  ciphers.  The  ciphers  must>  be 
capable  of  frequent  Changes.  The  rules  by  which  these 
changes  are  made  must  be  simple.  Ciphers  are  undiscov- 
erable  in  proportion  as  their  changes  are  frequent,  and  as 
the  messages  in  each  change  are  brief.  When  alphabet 
ciphers  are  used,  the  aim  should  be  never  to  allow  any  letter 
to  appear  twice  alike.  The  number  of  letters  under  each  key 
is  to  be  as  small  as  possible.  The  terminations  of  words  are 
to  be  concealed.  The  letters  in  each  word  ouo-ht  to  be 
made  in  unusual  sequence.  For  this  purpose  a  message  to 
be  enciphered  may  be  wholly  reversed — that  is,  written 
with  the  last  word  appearing  first.  Each  word  may  also 
be  reversed.  It  does  not  do  away  with  the  utility  of  ciphers 
that  they  may  be  sometimes  deciphered,  for  we  must  often 
use  them,  conscious  that,  with  sufficient  time  and  the  ap- 
pliances, they  can  be  interpreted;  but  knowing,  also,  that 
the  time  interpretation  will  require  will  render  the  message 
useless  to  an  enemy. 


PLATE  XXVI. 


Figure  1 . 


Figure  2. 


Two  Discs. 


Vertical  Section 
Figure  3. 


Two  Discs. 


""'''"     .  ■—  ''"^n 


Figure  4. 


Plan  for  Service  Discs. 


Figure  5. 


Vertical  Section  exhibiting  plan  tor  four  Discs 


MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS.  287 

Simple  devices  have  rendered  it  practicable  to  so  exhibit 
signals  that  their  interpretation  becomes  almost  impossible. 
The  entire  code  may  change  with  every  day,  with  every 
message,  or  with  every  word  of  every  message. 

The  Signal  Disk  is  as  follows: 

description  of  Signed  Dish: — On  a  small  disk  of  card- 
board, or  other  material  (Plate  XXVI,  Fig.  1),  are  written 
or  printed  the  letters  of  the  alphabet  in  irregular  sequence 
and  arranged  around  the  circumference  of  the  disk.  These 
letters  are  so  placed  that  when  the  disk  is  properly  held,  all 
the  letters  are  upright.  On  this  small  disk  are  also  printed 
those  combinations  of  letters  which  frequently  occur  in 
words,  as  "tion,"  "ing,"  "ous,"  etc.,  etc.,  and  a  sign  to 
mark  "  the  end  of  a  word."  On  a  larger  disk  are  written  or 
printed,  arranged  around  its  circumference  in  the  same 
manner,  either  the  letters  of  the  alphabet  or  the  symbolic 
numbers  of  signals  which  are  to  be  used. 

The  disks  are  fastened  concentrically  together  in  such 
manner  that  one  may  revolve  upon  the  other,  and  that  they 
may  be  clamped  in  any  position.  They  are  of  such  sizes 
that  when  so  fastened,  the  letters,  etc.,  upon  the  inner  disk, 
will  each  appear  close  to  and  directly  opposite  one  of  the 
signal  combinations  upon  the  outer  disk.  (See  Plate  XXVI, 
Fig.  1.) 

The  figures  "  1"  and  "  8"  are  sometimes  used  instead  of 
the  figures  "  1"  and  "2,"  to  symbolize  the  elements  "one" 
and  "  two,"  because  the  figure  "  8"  is  upright  in  most  posi- 
tions of  the  disk. 

Having  a  disk  arranged  and  clamped  as  at  Fig.  1,  Plate 
XXVI,  it  will  be  clearly  understood  by  any  signalist  that, so 
provided,  he  has  before  him  an  alphabetic  code  with  every 
letter  opposite  its  signal  symbols.  And  he  will  comprehend 
that,  by  referring  to  the  disk,  he  can  transmit  a  message 
without  the  study  of  any  particular  code,  and  can  transmit 


238  MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS. 

it  in  secret  signals  or  cipher  by  moving  the  disks  upon  each 
other,  and  so  making  changes  in  the  code. 

Thus,  to  make  "A,"  the  combination  "112,"  "one,  one, 
two,"  is  signalled;  to  make  "  C,"  the  combination  "  1221," 
"  one,  two,  two,  one,"  is  signalled  ;  to  make  "  T,"  the  com- 
bination "211,"  "two,  one,  one,"  is  signalled;  to  make 
"ing,"  the  combination  "2112,"  "  two,  one,  one,  two,"  is 
signalled.  And  there  is  so  signalled  the  word  "  Acting." 
To  denote  the  end  of  the  word,  the  common  "  pause-signal," 
"  3"  "  three,"  may  be  used,  or  whatever  combination  may 
be  in  the  compartment  opposite  the  character  for  "  end 
of  word."  This  is  arranged  by  preconcert,  and  so  for 
any  words.  Clauses,  etc.,  are  made  by  repetitions  of  the 
pause-signal.  Now,  it  is  evident  that  with  any  change  of 
the  relative  positions  of  the  disks  made,  as  by  rotating  one 
upon  the  other,  the  whole  code  of  alphabetic  signals  is 
changed.  Thus,  suppose  the  inner  disk  rotated  until  the 
letter  "  A"  is  opposite  the  combination  "  1112,"  "one,  one, 
one,  two."  Then  referring  to  the  same  Plate,  to  signal  the 
word  "Acting:"  "A"  is  "1112;"  "  C"  is  "2121,"  "  T"  is 
"22,"  "ing"  is  "  2212."  The  signals  do  not  in  anyway 
resemble  those  before  exhibited  for  the  same  word.  The 
signal  for  the  "  end  of  word"  will  also  be  different,  These 
changes  can  be  indefinitely  varied.  It  is  for  making  them 
that  the  disks  are  movable. 

Where  different  parties,  as  the  officers  of  a  corps  or  of  an 
army,  are  to  be  in  communication,  rules  for  the  changing  of 
the  disks  issued  to  all  enable  each  to  use  them  whenever  the 
officers  are  in  view  of  each  other  ;  each  finding  that  his 
cipher  will  then  correspond  witli  that  of  the  officer  with 
whom  he  is  signalling.  And  this  may  be,  though  the  sig- 
nalists  have  never  met,  and  may  be  serving  with  detach- 
ments which  have  these  communications  with  each  other 
for  the  first  time. 

The  following  is  an  example  of  a  General  Rule  for  the  use 


MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS.  289 

of  Signal  Disks.  The  signal  disk  is  supposed  to  be  ar- 
ranged for  a  code  of  two  elements.  The  communicating 
parties  have  disks  similar,  and  like  Fig.  1,  Plate  XXVI. 


RULES  AND  EXPLAXATIOXS  FOR  THE  USE  OF 

SIGNAL    DISKS. 

I. — Explanation  of  the  Signal  Disk. 

The  numerals  on  the  outer  rim  of  the  disk  represent  the 
combinations  to  be  made  with  a  flag  or  torch.  Each  com- 
bination represents,  when  made,  that  letter  on  the  inner  disk 
which  coincides  with  it. 

II. — To  make  Signals. 

The  signals,  for  whatever  code  signals  may  be  represented 
by  the  symbols  upon  the  outer  disks,  are  made  according  to 
the  rules  heretofore  given  while  treating  of  the  different 
codes. 

III. — The  Adjustment  Letter. 

The  adjustment-letter  is  any  letter  selected  on  the  inner 
disk,  which,  placed  opposite  a  given  combination  or  key- 
letter,  on  the  outer  disk,  adjusts  the  disks  for  the  cipher, 
and  is  the  key  to  any  communication  sent  in  that  particular 
cipher. 

The  letter  R  is  understood  to  be  the  adjustment-letter,  if 
no  other  letter  is  given. 

The  combination  to  be  used  with  the  adjustment-letter  is 
called  the  key-number. 

The  adjustmentdetter  and  the  signal  combination  being 
given,  the  inner  disk  will  be  turned  so  that  the  letter  will 

13 


290  MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS. 

coincide  with  the  combination.  Example  :  The  combination 
is  •'  1212,"  adjustment-letter  R — the  inner  disk  will  be  turned 
so  that  R  will  coincide  with  "  1212."  Any  letter  may  be  the 
adjustment-letter.  Any  signal  combination  may  be  chosen 
for  the  key-number. 

Example:  the  signal  "  1121— 3— 1122— 333,"  would  in- 
dicate that  "  W"  was  the  adjustment-letter  and  "  1122"  the 
cipher  combination.  The  disk  would  in  that  case  be  ar- 
ranged as  follows:  "  W"  would  be  brought  to  coincide  with 
"1122," 

IV. — To  Send  a  Message  in  Cipher. 

Station  "A"  calls  station  "  B,"  and  gets  "  B's"  acknowledg- 
ment. "A"  gives  "B"  the  cipher  combination  in  which  he 
intends  to  send  the  message.  Example:  "A"  gives  "B" 
"2122  (right,  left,  right,  right),  333  ;"  "  B"  answers  by  re- 
peating "22.22.22.3, — 2122  333  ;"  which  indicates  to  "A" 
that  "  B"  has  got  the  correct  cipher.  "A"  and  "  B"  adjust 
their  disks  as  follows  :  each  turns  the  inner  disk  so  that  the 
letter  R  will  coincide  with  the  combination  "  2122"  in  the 
outer  disk.     (See  Plate  XXVI,  Fig.  1.) 

The  disks  of  both  parties  are  now  alike,  and  the  message 
commences. 

To  signal  the  word  "Pickets"  in  the  foregoing  cipher, 
station  A  would  make  "221  11  1221  2211  1212  211 
122,  3,"  =  Pickets.  If  "W"  was  the  adjustment-letter  and 
"  1122"  the  cipher  combination,  then  "  W"  would  coinchle 
with  "  1122,"  and  the  word  "Pickets"  would  be  represented 
by  "  122  1211  212  2   2222  112   2111,  3,"  ^Pickets. 

V. — To  CWnge  the  Cipher  wnEN  Sending  a  Message. 

Officers  sending  a  message  of  an  important  nature  from  a 
point  that  is  supposed  to  be  watched  by  the  enemy,  will 
change  the  cipher  while  sending  the  message. 


MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS.  291 

The  change  of  the  cipher  combinations  will  be  made  at  the 
close  of  a  sentence  or  of  a  word. 

Example:  Suppose  the  first  pari  of  a  message  is  sent  with 
"D"  for  the  adjustment-letter,  and  adjusted  at  L12forthe 
cipher  combination.  At  the  dose  of  the  first  sentence,  the 
officer  sending  will  make  the  signal  "33 — 12  L- — 33,"  which 
will  indicate,  to  the  officer  receiving  the  message,  that  the 
cipher  is  to  be  changed  from  "112"  to  u121  ;"  each  officer 
will  adjust  his  disk,  that  is.  he  turns  the  inner  disk,  so  that 
the  letter  "D"  will  coincide  with  "  121"  instead  of  k'  112" 
as  before. 

The  officer  receiving  the  message  will  acknnwledge  that 
his  disk  is  readjusted  by  making  "121,  333."  The  officer 
sending:  the  messasre  will  now  continue  the  message  in  the 
new  cipher. 

Any  number  of  changes  can  be  made  in  the  same 
manner. 

VI. — IiECOKO. 

The  officer  receiving  the  message  will  have  another  officer 
oi'  an  enlisted  man  to  write  down  the  combinations  as  they 
are  received,  each  being  called  off  in  its  turn  by  the  person  at 
the  glass.  At  the  close  of  the  message  the  officer  will  take 
his  disk  and  decipher  or  translate  the  combinations  thus 
written,  acknowledging  the  receipt  of  the  message  in  the 
usual  manner. 

It  will  be  understood  how  different  parties,  aware  that 
they  have  similar  disks  and  furnished  with  such  rules,  may 
telegraph  in  cipher  and  change  the  cipher  frequently  in 
every  message  upon  their  iirst  meeting.  The  instructions 
given  are  of  a  general  character.  There  should  be,  ill  addi- 
tion, especial  instruction  of  a  confidential  nature. 

There  are  certain  preconcerted  plans  for  arranging  or 
using  the  disks  in  a  particular  manner.  These  may  issue 
from  a  central   office,  and  should  be  committed  to  memory 


292  MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS. 

by  those  entitled  to  receive  them,  so  that,  in  case  of  capture, 
no  information  will  fall  into  the  hands  of  the  enemy. 

In  the  presence  of  an  enemy,  where  changes  of  cipher 
must  be  constant,  the  senior  signal-officer  should  issue  confi- 
dential instructions  by  which  a  cipher,  peculiar  to  his  party, 
is  to  be  used  and  changed.  When  stations  are  much 
exposed  and  of  great  importance,  an  especial  cipher,  intel- 
ligible to  the  officers  upon  those  stations  only,  may  be  issued 
to  them. 

Skilled  signalists  can,  at  any  time,  concert  for  their  own 
use  a  cipher  which  will  be  uninterpretable  by  others. 

The  Roman  characters  may  be  used  for  numerals  with  the 
cipher  disk.  They  are  to  be  preceded  and  followed  by 
signals  for  "  numerals  follow"  and  "  numerals  ended." 

Disks  intended  to  be  used  exclusively  as  cipher  disks 
should  have  upon  the  inner  disk  a  character  for  "end  of  a 
word,"  with  a  corresponding  symbol  upon  the  outer  disk. 
(Plate  XXVI,  Fig.  4.) 

A  message  sent  in  cipher  with  such  a  disk  shows  no  clue 
for  the  beginning  or  end  of  words.  The  apparent  termina- 
tions made  when  the  signal  "  three"  is  shown  for  a  letter, 
only  mislead  the  interpreter. 

A  plan  for  a  General  Service  Disk  is  as  illustrated  in  Plate 
XXVI,  Fig.  4.  It  consists  of  one  interior  and  one  exterior 
disk  ;  the  interior  bearing  upon  it  letters,  etc.,  and  the  exte- 
rior prepared  with  rows  of  signal-symbols — one  of  a  code  of 
two  elements,  one  of  a  code  of  three  elements,  and  one  of  a 
code  often  elements.  An  additional  row  of  letters  may  be 
printed  upon  the  outer  disk,  to  permit  a  message  to  be 
readily  enciphered  in  letters  instead  of  signals,  when  that 
is  desirable. 

Using  this  disk,  messages  can  be  sent  enciphered  by  any 
plan  of  signals  which  has  been  described  in  these  notes.  Or 
they  can  be  written  out  to  be  sent  by  mail,  or  messenger,  or 
by  electric  telegraph. 


MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS.  293 

Disks  can  be  used  with  frequent  changes  of  adjustment- 
letters,  as  described  in  General  Rules.  Or  preferably  by  the 
plan  of  countersign-words  or  countersign-figures. 

They  can  be  modified  in  any  of  the  modes  hereafter  de- 
scribed, to  add  to  the  safety  of  the  cipher. 

Countersign-words. 

The  use  of  countersign-words  is  a  method  for  securing 
secret  communication.  In  a  Manual  prepared  for  general 
circulation,  the  modes  reserved  for  confidential  instruc- 
tions cannot  be  given.  The  following  are  sufficient  for 
illustration,  and  for  general  uses. 

Countersign-words  are  key-words  by  which  changes  of 
adjustment  are  so  regulated  as  to  be  made  by  rule,  the 
countersign-word  rendering  it  possible  to  remember  numer- 
ous changes,  and  to  preconcert  that  similar  changes  be 
made  at  similar  times,  by  similar  rules,  by  a  number  of 
signalists. 

Countersigns  may  consist  of  one  word  or  of  several,  as 
"  Baltimore,"  or  "  Germanic  hosts."  The  fewer  repetitions 
of  any  letter  in  a  countersign  the  better.  When  countersign- 
words  are  used,  each  letter  of  the  countersign  becomes,  in 
its  turn,  the  adjustment-letter.  The  changes,  from  letter  to 
letter,  are  indicated  by  preconcerted  signals.  The  key- 
number,  to  which  the  first  adjustment  is  made,  is  either 
prearranged  or  it  is  conveyed  by  secret  signals. 

Cipher  Disks  can  be  made  for  practice,  and  ought  to  be 
used  by  the  student  to  verify  the  illustrations  which  follow. 
The  disks  are  to  be  cut  from  writing-paper  or  thin  card- 
board;  they  are  concentrically  fastened  together  with  a 
pin,  or  any  simple  pivot,  and  bear  copied  upon  them  the 
letters,  characters,  and  division  lines  as  given  in  Plates 
XXVI  and  XXVII. 

Messages  to  be  sent  in  cipher  may  be  reduced  to  writing 
in  cipher  before  they  are  transmitted. 


294  MANUAL   OF    SIGNALS. 

Enciphered  messages  are  sometimes  reversed.  The  last 
letter  of  the  last  word  is  in  this  case  signalled  first,  and  is 
followed  by  the  other  letters  of  the  word,  and  the  other 
words  in  this  reversed  succession  : 

Thus  the  sentence, 

"  Do  not  come  here," 

Signalled  reversed  would  read, 

"ereh  emoc  ton  od." 

Or  the  words  may  he  written  and  reversed  in  clauses,  as 
by  twos,  by  threes,  or  other  number  together  at  will. 

So,  "  Do  not — come  here," 

would  be,  "Ton  od— ereh  emoc." 

This  simple  device  adds  much  to  the  labors  of  a  deci- 
pherer, and  does  away  with  any  clue  from  context. 

When  a  message  is  to  be  written  enciphered,- it  is  first 
written  out  in  full.  If  it  is  to  be  enciphered  by  clauses  of 
two  or  more  words  each,  it  is  then  so  divided.  The  letters 
of  the  countersign-words  are  then  written  letter  by  letter 
over  each  word  or  each  clause.  The  message  is  then  en- 
ciphered by  reference  to  the  disk,  adjusting  the  letters  over 
each  word  or  clause  in  turn  to  the  key-number  or  key- 
letter. 

If  the  message  is  to  be  inverted,  either  as  a  whole  or  by 
clauses,  it  is  so  inverted  before  the  countersign-letters  are 
written  over  it. 

When  a  message  is  to  be  enciphered,  the  correct  letters, 
etc.,  are  sought  on  the  inner  disk,  the  cipher-letters  or  sym- 
bols are  opposite  and  coincident  upon  the  outer  disk. 

When  a  message  is  received  in  cipher,  it  is  determined, 
first,  whether  it  is  inverted;  then,  whether  it  is  divided  by 
words  or  clauses.  These  facts  will  be  known  by  the  pre- 
concert and  by  the  record.  The  letters  of  the  countersign- 
words  are  then  written  over  the  words  or  the  clauses,  and  the 
message  is  interpreted  by  reference  to  the  disk  adjusting  the 
letters  written  over  each  word  or  clause  to  the  key-number 


MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS.  295 

in  turn.  When  the  message  as  received  is  continuous  and 
without  division  into  words  or  clauses,  the  interpretation  is 
commenced  by  adjusting  the  firsl  letter  of  the  countersign- 
word  to  the  key-number;  the  first  "end  of  word"  signal  then 
ibnml  in  the  message  will  indicate  the  first  change  of  cipher 
— i.  e.,  the  second  letter  of  the  countersign-word  is  then  to 
be  brought  to  the  key-number;  and  so  for  each  change  in 
succession. 

When  a  message  is  to  be  deciphered,  the  cipher-letters  or 
symbols  are  found  upon  the  outer  disk;  the  correct  letters, 
etc..  are  opposite  and  coincident  upon  the  inner  disk. 

The  same  rules  apply  when  a  message  is  to  be  enciphered 
in  or  deciphered  from  signal- numbers. 

In  the  examples  which  follow,  the  messages  are  enci- 
phered in  letters.  This  mode  is  the  more  convenient,  and 
best  illustrates  the  changes  and  the  safety  of  the  cipher. 

Such  examples  assume  that  the  enemy  know  what  signals 
signify  each  letter  of  the  alphabet.  The  message  remains 
incomprehensible.  The  reader  will  comprehend  that  the 
signal-numbers  could  have  been  given,  changing  in  each 
cipher-change, instead  of  the  changing  letters  here  exhibited. 

The  cipher-disk  can  be  used  with  cou ntersign- words :  the 
"  panse-signal"  being  used  to  indicate  the  times  at  which  the 
cipher  is  to  change.  The  "countersign-words"  may  consist 
of  either  one  word  or  several,  as  "Mohican"  or"Albon 
City." 

If  the  countersign  "Mohican"  is  to  be  used,  the  key- 
number  of  the  disk  being,  say  "  11,"  then  at  the  commence- 
ment of  the  message  the  letter  "  M"  would  be  at  "11  ;"  the 
first  two  words  of  the  message  would  be  signalled  with  this 
key,  a  Combination-signal  being  used  as  the  "end  of  word" 
signal  to  indicate  the  pause  or  space  between  the  words. 
At  the  end  of  the  second  word  the  "front"  signal  being 
made,  indicates  at  once  the  end  of  the  second  word  and 
change-cipher.     The  second  letter  of  the  countersign-word, 


296  MANUAL    OF    SIGNALS. 

the  letter  "  o"  on  the  disk,  is  brought  to  the  key-number 
"  11."  The  next  two  words,  the  third  and  fourth  words  of 
the  message,  are  signalled  in  this  cipher.  Another  "  front" 
is  then  made  ;  the  letter  "  h"  is  to  be  brought  as  the  ad- 
justment-letter to  the  key-number — in  which  are  sent  the 
fifth  and  sixth  words  of  the  message,  and  thus  to  the  com- 
pletion. In  the  record  of  a  message  so  sent,  a  dash  marks 
each  change  of  the  cipher.  The  countersign-word,  known 
to  the  decipherer,  furnishes  the  clue  for  the  interpretation. 
In  emergencies,  a  skilful  person  in  charge  of  the  disk  deci- 
phers the  message  letter  by  letter  as  it  is  received  by  signal. 
For  example,  the  words  of  the  message, 

m  o  h  i  c 

"  The  enemy  |  have  crossed  |  the  river.  ]  Send  a  |  cavalry 
a  n 

force  |  to  their  |  rear," 

are  set  off  by  twos  as  here  given,  and  the  countersign- 
letters  are  written  over  each  clause.  Disk  as  at  Plate 
XXVI,  Fig.  2.     Countersign  "  Mohican." 

Key-number  "  122,"  or  key-letter  "N." 

The  message  is  signalled, 

"  Fiv  gvevnh  grpingzusnddingk  ningk  qnfocezfe.  udr — 
tfeqnjdjitexfmtnz  ingijingtionrwp  lqfl." 

If  the  message  had  been  invei'ted,  the  countersign-letters 
would  have  been  written  over  the  clauses,  commencing  "  m" 
over  the  last  clause,  thus : 

n  a  c  i  h 

"  The  enemy  |  have  crossed  |  the  river.  |  Send  a  |  cavalry 
o  m 

force  |  to  their  |  rear." 

The  last  letter  of  the  message  would  be  signalled  first,  and 
followed  by  the  other  letters  and  words  in  reversed  suc- 
cession, thus : 


MANUAL  OF   SIGNALS.  297 

"Ztvz  s&inggezne  fsctmo-cpvzvs  q&-rdu  tzdstxzhc 
urqqipajr — ntion  pingqnqwqrd." 

If  the  end  of  every  word  is  marked  by  a  signal  combina- 
tion, the  clauses  may  terminate  and  the  cipher  change  some- 
times in  the  middle  of  a  word,  the  pause-signal  signifying 
the  change. 

A  combination  signal  should  never  be  used  for  the  end 
of  a  word,  unless  with  precautions  similar  to  those  above 
described;  for  occurring  so  frequently  in  each  message,  it 
will  afford  the  enemy,  if  by  chance  a  cipher-disk  happens  to 
be  in  his  possession,  the  key  by  which  to  adjust  it. 


If  a  cipher-disk  has  upon  it  codes  of  different  elements, 
as,  for  instance,  codes  of  two,  three,  and  ten  elements,  then 
messages  mav  be  sent  with  the  sfeneral  rules  ;  but  the  letter- 
signals  chan^imj  from  those  of  one  code  to  those  of  a  code 
of  different  elements  at  a  certain  signal,  thus  working  with 
a  code  of  two  elements  by  flag  motions,  the  letter  "A"  may 
appear  in  one  word  as  "two-two" — "22,"  while  in  the  next 
word,  the  change-signal  being  given,  it  may  appear  as  "  three 
three" — "  33."  The  changes  from  code  to  code  are  indicated 
thus  :  "  33—2—33"  "Use  code  of  two  elements  ;"  "  33—3— 
33"  "  use  code  of  three  elements,"  and  so  on.  Working  with 
signals  by  positions  and  motions,  as  with  disks,  numerous 
codes  may  be  thus  used  in  the  same  message.  Thus  "  33— 
5-33"  means  "Use  code  of  five  elements;"  "33—7—33," 
"  Use  code  of  seven  elements."  The  record  carefully  kept, 
and  noting  each  change,  will  give  the  clue  to  the  interpre- 
tation. 

13* 


298  MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS. 


ENCIPHERING  CERTAIN  WORDS  ONLY  OF  A 

MESSAGE. 

It  is  one  plan  of  cipher  to  place  certain  words  only  of  the 
message  in  cipher  characters — the  other  words  are  trans- 
mitted as  written.  Thus  with  a  cipher-disk  and  a  certain 
adjustment-letter  or  countersign-word,  the  key-letter  being 
given,  the  message  maybe  signalled  with  all  the  nouns  and 
leading  verbs  in  cipher,  or  with  such  words  in  cipher  as 
will  cover  all  clue  to  the  meaning  0f  the  message.  The 
ciphered  words,  if  few  in  number  and  with  few  recurring 
letters,  may  be  signalled  with  one  adjustment  of  the  disk. 

If  the  ciphered  words  are  numerous,  it  is  well  to  change 
the  adjustment-letter  for  each,  or  a  countersign-word  may 
be  used.  In  this  case  the  first  ciphered  word  is  transmitted 
with  the  disk  adjusted  by  the  first  letter  of  the  counter- 
sign, the  second  word  the  disk  adjusted  by  the  second  let- 
ter of  the  countersign,  and  so  on.  When  the  countersign- 
word  has  been  once  used,  the  next  cipher  word  commences 
with  the  disk  again  adjusted  by  the  first  letter  of  the  cotin- 
.tersiom,  and  so  on.  The  signal  "the  following  word  is  in 
cipher"  may  be  made  by  three  circular  waves  of  the  flag 
from  left  to  right,  or  by  other  agreed  signal.  If  more  than 
one  word  is  enciphered,  this  signal  should  be  made  both 
before  and  after  the  words.  In  cases  where  this  signal  is 
omitted,  the  fact  that  the  ciphered  words  alone  are  unintel- 
ligible will  indicate  to  the  receiver  that  he  must  refer  for 
them  to  his  key  and  cipher.  This  plan  has  the  advantage, 
that  the  ciphers  are  so  short  that  rules  for  deciphering  will 
not  apply. 

If  two  or  more  words  are  employed  together,  signal  com- 
binations appearing  on  the  Disk  and  meaning  "end  of 
word11  being  used  instead  of  the  usual  intervals  between  the 
words,  to  show  where  each  word   is  ended,  there  is  no  clue 


MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS.  299 

to  the  number  of  letters  in  any  word,  and  it  becomes  yet 
more  difficult  to  correctly  interpret  the  message. 

For  example,  the  message: 

"Troops  cannol  be  spared  to  re-enforce  you  to-morrow,'' 
enciphered  with  disk  (Fig.  2,  Plate  XXVI),  the  first  and 
second  letters  of  the  message,  "T"  and  "IS,"  being  taken 
respectively  as  the  "adjustment-letter"  and  the  "key-letter," 
reads  : 

"Troops  xiwwermgnmfji — na  to  reenforce  you  to-mor- 
row." 


In  the  methods  of  cipher  before  described,  the  division  of 
the  message  into  words  or  into  clauses  of  greater  or  less 
length  affords  a  possible  aid  to  the  interpreter.  A  more 
difficult  cipher  is  this:  the  disks  are  prepared  as  usual.  It 
is  understood  that  the  "front"  signal  is  no  longer  to  indi- 
cate a  pause  or  clause,  but  that  it,  like  any  other  signal,  is 
to  represent  a  letter  as  often  as  a  letter  on  the  interior  disk 
has  this  signal  coincident  with  it  upon  the  exterior  disk. 

Any  combination  may  stand  for  the  end  of  a  word. 

A  countersign-word  or  sentence  i>  concerted. 

The  disk  is  adjusted  at  particular  letters  by  preconcert. 

The  transmission  is  commenced  by  signalling  the  first 
letters  of  the  message  with  the  first  letter  of  the  counter- 
sign-words at  the  key-letter.  When  the  combination  signal 
— which,  with  the  disks  at  this  adjustment,  stands  for  "end 
of  a  word" — is  made,  it  indicates  at  once  the  end  of  a  word, 
and  is  the  signal  to  change  the  adjustment  of  the  disks; 
and  the  second  letter  of  the  countersign-word  is  brought 
to  the  kev-letter — the  signalling  proceeding  without  any 
marked  pause  ;  the  next  following  letters  are  sent  with  this 
key  until  that  signal,  which  with  this  adjustment  stands 
for  "end  of  a  word,"  is  made,  when  the  adjustment  is  again 
changed  and  the  third   letter  of  the  countersign-word  is 


300  MANUAL    OF    SIGNALS. 

brought  to  the  key-letter — and  thus  on,  the  adjustment 
changing  at  each  combination  standing  for  "  end  of  a  word," 
until  all  the  letters  of  the  countersio-n-words  have  been 
used ;  when  for  the  next  adjustment  the  first  letter  of  the 
countersign-word  is  again  used,  repeating  the  process  as 
before. 

The  result  of  this  management  is,  that  the  message  is  sig- 
nalled with  the  letter-sisrnals  chano-inor  wholly  in  each  word 
and  without  clue  to  the  beginning  or  end  of  any  word,  the 
record  presenting  from  the  beginning  to  the  end  a  continu- 
ous line  of  combinations  or  of  letters.  The  decipherer  is  so 
deprived  of  almost  every  clue  upon  which  experts  rely  for 
their  interpretations. 

The  record  is  still  further  complicated  for  the  interpreter, 
by  the  fact  that  the  signal  "front"  generally  indicates  the 
"end  of  a  word." 

And  on  the  record  there  may  be  many  "  fronts"  or  "  threes." 
If  the  message  is  divided  into  words  by  these  signals,  it  is 
confused. 

For  example,  the  message  : 

"  Gen.  TJ.  S.  Grant  : 

"  Allatoona  is  closely  invested,  but  will  hold  out  until 
you  can  relieve  it. 

J.  F.  Corse,  Maj.-Gen." 

So  enciphered,  Disk  as  Fig.  2,  Plate  XXYI,  Baltimore 
being  countersign-word,  key-letter  E  reads — ■ 

Bait  i  mo 

Gen-TJ-S-Gr  ant- Allatoona -is- closely 
k  q  n  w  a  1  w  y  v  s  r  tion  e  z  v  p  p  v  q  1 1  i  v  o  n  u  &  x  y  e  f  n  y  k 

r  e        B  a  1  t 

-  i  n  v    est  e  d  -but-will-h    o    1  d-out-  u    n 
m  x  a  ins  h  z  3  h  tion  f&xicoissww  ing  kx  1 1  r  z  y  y  tion 


» 


B*5 


t3 

s 


B 

01 


g 


V. 


4) 


:i;.;:, 


1 1 

CO 

-ex 

£ 

0 

c'  li 

5 

-oi  r. 

■a 

@    q 

0 

fa 

ill 

£ 

U"1 


£ 


3 


t 

fa 

2 


or. 

U 

2 

a 


fa 

1 


MANUAL  OF  SIGNALS.  301 

i  m  o  r      e    B     a 

ti  1-you-can-rel  ieve-it-J-F-Co  rse- 
e  &  a  z  3  t  h  o  h  q  r  &  3  n  y  o  n  h  urn  x  3  f  q  c  j  w  y  ing  h  v  i  1 
1  t 

m  a  j  -g   e      n 
hmgyv  ing  tion 

If  in  addition  to  this  the  message  is  transmitted  inverted, 
commencing  the  transmission  with  the  last  letter  of  the  last 
word,  and  so  with  each  in  turn  until  the  first  letter  of  the 
first  word  is  reached — the  complication  is  greater. 

A  mode  of  using  the  cipher-disk  similar  in  effect  to  the 
employment  of  the  countersign-word  is  to  have  instead  an 
agreed  number,  or  rather  combination  of  numbers ;  as,  for 
instance,  "246  7." 

An  adjustment-letter  is  selected.  This  letter  is  adjusted 
to  any  agreed  key-number  upon  the  outer  disk. 

The  first  word  or  clause  of  the  message  is  then  transmitted 
in  this  cipher.  At  the  signal  "front,"  the  adjustment-letter 
on  the  disk  is  moved  forward  two  spaces.  The  next  word 
or  clause  is  transmitted  in  this  cipher.  On  the  signal  front 
the  adjustment-letter  is  moved  forward  four  spaces;  and 
the  next  clause  is  so  transmitted :  for  the  next  change  of 
cipher  the  adjustment-letter  is  moved  forward  six  spaces, 
and  for  the  next  in  like  manner  moved  seven  spaces.  The 
number  "2467"  is  now  exhausted,  and  for  the  next  change 
the  adjustment-letter  moves  forward  again  but  two  spaces, 
the  distance  indicated  by  the  first  numeral  of  the  combina- 
tion ;  for  the  next  change  the  adjustment-letter  moves  again 
four  spaces;  and  so  on  by  repetitions. 

Plate  XXVII,  Fig.  1,  affords  an  illustration  of  a  signal- 
disk  prepared  for  cryptographic  writing.  Each  letter  on. 
the  inner  disk  is  represented  by  either  of  two  or  more  coin- 
cident with  it  upon  the  outer  disk. 

In  this  case  the  letters  of  the  Roman  and  Greek  alphabets 
have  been  used  with  one  or  two  added  signs. 


302  MANUAL   OF    SIGNALS. 

To  illustrate  with  a  disk  fashioned  as  above,  encipher  the 
words : 

hone 
"  Have  not— Have  not — Have  not — Have  not 

s  t  h  o 

Have  not — Have  not — Have  not — Have  not." 

Assume  a  countersign-word,  as  "Honest."     Adjust    H 
to  o. 

The  countersign-letters  are  written  over  the  words  as 
above. 

The  cipher  reads : 

ozqn  7#b — </>ei/m  Sod— fnfy  nzg 
pTi-Tr   oflf — qasp  ojd— ai«7  jv7T — 
7rzov     Ihy — vr'xv  drr'i. 

The  spaces  between  the  words  are  left  blank  in  this  cryp- 
togram, to  enable  the  reader  to  trace  each  letter.  It  can, 
of  course,  be  complicated  by  using  a  sign  for  the  "  end  of 
word,"  and  this  sign  would  change  for  each  word. 

A  more  simple  cryptogram  is  made  by  using  the  letters 
of  the  English  alphabet  only,  as  at  Plate  XXVII,  Fig.  2. 

Then  countersign  and  adjustment  being  as  above,  the 
cipher  reads ; 

otiy  gij— zpsh  foo— pycj  ote— Igno  vop— ivdl  mdf— vowg 

dlio. 

In  this,  as  in  the  preceding  case,  the  spaces  at  the  ends  of 
words  are  left  blank.  If  more  repetitions  of  the  same  words 
were  to  follow,  with  no  letter  twice  alike,  a  longer  counter- 
sign would  be  necessary.  For  forming  cryptograms  of  this 
style,  any  signs  can  be  used  and  any  number  of  them  placed 
in  each  compartment  of  the  exterior  disk,  and  so  made  co- 
incident with  any  letter  upon  the  interior  disk.     Thus  the 


MANUAL  OF   SIGNALS.  303 

spaces  upon  the  exterior  may  inclose  cuneiform  characters, 
or  Greek  or  Hebrew  letters,  or  any  character  or  sisns  in- 
genuity  can  devise. 

Disks  of  this  kind  can  be  easily  made  :  the  forms  cut  from 
writing-paper.  They  can  be  lettered  at  the  option  of  those 
who  are  to  use  them. 

This  style  of  cryptogram  may  thus  be  useful  to  officers 
whose  communications  must  be  confidential,  and  who — each 
provided  with  a  disk,  an  agreed  countersign,  and  key-letter 
— can  communicate  in  a  cipher  not  likely  to  be  interpreted. 

The  changes  to  be  had  with  cipher-disks  by  changing  the 
sequences  of  the  letters  of  the  alphabets;  by  changing  the 
sequences  of  the  signal-symbols  ;  by  changes  of  adjustment ; 
by  changes  of  structure  and  of  plans  for  use,  are  infinite. 

Changes  by  Adjustment  are  all  those  changes  which  can 
be  had  by  using  the  different  letters  of  the  alphabet  as  ad- 
justment-letters, and  by  adjusting  them  to  correspond  with 
different  signal-symbols  or  key-numbers. 

A  principal  way  of  effecting  changes  by  countersign-words 
has  been  described. 

Countersign-words  may  be  of  every  variety.  A  sentence 
of  long  words  is  sometimes  chosen  as  a  countersign.  Any 
words  which  can  be  remembered  can  be  strung  together  for 
this  purpose. 

A  number  of  countersigns  may  be  prearranged  and  num- 
bered, and  it  may  be  concerted  that  certain  countersigns 
shall  be  used  on  certain  days  of  a  month,  or  of  a  week,  or 
there  may  be  a  number  of  countersigns  noted  by  numbers ; 
and  the  preconcert  that  a  certain  countersign  shall  be  used 
with  the  first  message;  a  different  countersign  with  the 
second;  still  another  with  the  third  ;   and  thus  on. 

When  countersigns  are  prearranged  by  certain  rules,  and 
General  Service  Disks  are  distributed  to  the  different  posts 
and  to  certain  officers  of  a  command,  a  secret  correspondence 
in  writing  can   be  had  with  any  post  on  any  day,  or  com- 


304  MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS. 

munication  can  be  had  to  or  from  any  post  in  view  by  secret 
signals. 

A  disk  without  the  countersign,  or  a  countersign  without 
the  disk,  is  useless  in  the  hands  of  an  enemy. 

Stations  being  provided  with  similar  disks,  countersigns 
may  be  signalled  from  station  to  station  if  there  be  no  other 
alternative.  This  must  be  with  precaution.  Thus  it  may  be 
understood  that  the  first  name  of  a  person  signalled  in  any 
message,  between  two  parties  wishing  to  establish  a  counter- 
sign, shall  be  the  countersign.  This  clue  had,  another  coun- 
tersign can  be  established. 

The  characters  upon  the  inner  disk  may  vary.  They  may 
be  more  numerous  than  in  the  illustrations  given.  (Plates 
XXVI  and  XXVII.)  There  may  be,  in  addition  to  the 
alphabet,  characters  for  "periods,"  "commas,"  "message 
is  addressed,"  "  message  is  signed,"  "  numerals  follow," 
"numerals  ended,"  etc.,  etc.,  and  for  numerous  combina- 
tions of  letters,  as  ed,  ous,  ly,  tive,  the,  etc.,  etc.,  and  the 
double  letters,  as  mm,  11,  etc.  For  each  of  these  an  additional 
signal-symbol  must  be  arranged  to  correspond  upon  the 
outer  disk.  There  can  be  thirty  signal-symbols  of  two  ele- 
ments, using  up  to  those  of  four  places.  There  are  eighty-one 
signal-symbols  of  three  elements,  using  up  to  those  of  four 
places.  The  number  of  symbols  increases  as  those  of  greater 
numbers  of  elements  are  used.  The  disks  must  be  kept  of 
convenient  size.  Each  additional  character  and  symbol 
adds  to  the  safety  of  the  cipher. 

There  may  be  several  rows  of  signal-symbols  of  differing 
numbers  of  elements  upon  the  outer  disk ;  as  Plate  XXVI, 
Fig.  4. 

,The  example  is  of  two,  three,  and  ten  elements;  there 
might  be  additional  rows.  This  example  will  enable  it  to 
be  understood  how  several  distinct  signals  may  each  of  them 
stand  for  the  same  letter;  or  how,  by  similar  plans,  several 
distinct  signs  or  characters  may  be  made  to  represent  the 


MANUAL  OF   SIGNALS.  305 

same  letter  in  a  cryptogram.  With  but  three  rows,  as  here 
given,  each  letter,  etc.,  upon  the  inner  disk  can  be  signified 
by  nearly  one  hundred  different  signals  ;  or,  in  a  crypto- 
gram, it  could  be  written  with  nearly  a  hundred  different 
characters. 

Supposing  the  letters,  etc.,  on  the  inner  disk  to  be  thirty 
in  number,  and  nine  rows  of  symbols  on  the  outer  disk,  each 
letter  could  be  represented  in  two  hundred  and  seventy 
different  ways.  Some  instances  of  this  kind  are  already 
illustrated. 


There  may  be  several  disks  concentrically  joined.  Thus 
there  bein^  furnished  a  larjre  number  of  inner  disks,  made 
of  thin  cardboard,  and  each  having  printed  upon  it  the 
alphabets,  etc.,  but  with  a  different  sequence  of  the  letters 
on  each  card,  a  number  of  these  are  clamped  together,  one 
on  top  of  the  other,  in  the  place  of  a  single  inner  disk. 
(Plate  XXVII,  Fig.  3.)  These  inner  disks  have  numbers 
stamped  upon  them,  and  they  are  known  as  numbers  "  one," 
k-  two,"  "three,"  etc.,  counting  from  above.  If,  now,  it  is 
at  any  time  desired  to  change  the  sequence  of  the  alphabet, 
a  signal  is  made — "  disk  three,"  "  disk  nine,"  etc.,  as  the 
ease  may  be.  Disk  "  three"  or  disk  "  nine"  is  then  brought 
to  be  uppermost,  and  the  signalling  proceeds  under  the 
same  rules  of  working  as  before.  A  copy  of  any  disk  is 
thus  useless  in  the  hands  of  an  enemy. 

Or  it  may  be  arranged  that  a  certain  numbered  interior 
disk  shall  be  used  on  each  day  of  the  week  or  of  the  month, 
and  that  the  interior  disk  shall  change  thus  every  day. 
Thus,  with  seven  interior  disks,  it  may  be  arranged  that 
number  one  shall  be  used  on  Sunday  ;  number  two  on  Mon- 
day ;  and  so  for  the  succeeding  days  of  the  week. 

There  may  be  also  several  exterior  disks  ;  and  then  it  can 


308  MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS. 

be  preconcerted  to  wholly  change  the  disks  as  often  as  is 
desirable.     (Plate  XXVII,  Fig.  3.) 

The  number  of  changes  that  can  be  had  in  this  manner  are 
all  those  that  can  be  had  by  all  the  changes  of  sequence  that 
can  be  made  with  all  the  characters  that  may  be  used  upon 
the  interior  disk,  added  to  all  those  that  can  be  made  with 
all  the  symbols  that  may  be  used  upon  the  exterior  disks. 
They  are  some  millions. 

The  signal-disks  may  thus  be  used  with  an  endless  variety 
of  structure  and  application.  The  modes  here  given  are 
perhaps  sufficient  for  illustration. 

The  possible  utility  of  the  device  will  be  realized  when  it 
is  considered  that  in  the  hands  of  any  signalist  it  affords 
him  at  once  the  means  to  communicate  in  codes  he  may  have 
never  learned,  and  the  modes  to  guard  his  communications 
from  detection.  With  disks,  on  which  are  printed  different 
codes  with  brief  instructions  as  to  the  use  of  the  disk,  there 
are  furnished,  in  a  simple  form,  all  needed  rules  and  appa- 
ratus for  forming  codes  of  signals  and  for  making  them 
secret, — a  compend  of  the  principles  and  practice  of  tele- 
graphic signalling  and  of  cipher. 

Every  signal-officer,  and  indeed  every  well-educated 
officer  of  the  Army  and  Navy,  ought  to  have  such  informa- 
tion as  will  enable  him  to  use  the  signal-disks.  A  few  days' 
study  will  render  this  practicable. 

When  we  reflect  how  skilfully  a  message  may  be  con- 
cealed in  written  cipher;  and  again,  that  that  message  sig- 
nalled is  yet  further  concealed,  for  the  reason  that  even  the 
letters  of  the  copy  can  be  then  arrived  at  by  the  signalist 
only  who  receives  them  and  who  posesses  the  key  to 
the  disks  :  when  we  remember  how  varied  the  meanings 
of  the  signals  may  be;  that  different  disks  may  be  used  at 
different  times;  that  different  key-words  and  different  ad- 
justments may  be  used  for  different  messages;  that  almost 
every  aid  by  which  interpreters  are  taught  to  trace  may  be 


M  WXAL    OF    SIGNALS.  307 

taken  away;  and  that  at  last  a  ni.is^  of  Letters  may  be  so 
thrown  into  the  hands  of  the  observer  that  he  may  arrange 
them  into  whatever  divisions  liis  fancy  dictates  without 
any  clue  to  their  correct  arrangement: — the  chances  of 
interpretation  appear  so  small  as  to  give  the  assurance  of 
safety. 

The  instructor  and  the  pupil  must  remember  that,  in  this 
branch  of  signalling,  the  highest  skill  comes  only  with  per- 
se; ering  practice. 


A  single  Cipher  Disk  made  of  brass,  and  having  the  let- 
tors  separately  detachable,  in  order  that  their  sequence  may 
be  at  option  altered,  has  been  prepared  by  Mr.  J.  \Yyatt 
Beid,  of  New  York. 

Mr.  Reid  was  one  of  the  first  to  thus  illustrate  the  ease 
with  which  the  sequences  of  the  alphabetic  letters  might  be 
changed,  and  the  importance  of  such  changes. 

Greater  convenience  and  safer  results  are,  however,  had 
by  the  use  of  the  disks,  movable  upon  each  other,  as  has 
been  heretofore  described. 


A  very  ingenious  and  valuable  plan  of  cipher  has  been 
devised  by  Sergeant  Edwin  II.  Hawley,  of  the  Signal  C<  >rps. 
The  apparatus  consists  of  twenty-six  long  and  narrow  tablets 
fastened  together  at  one  end,  arranged  as  the  tablets  or 
strips  of  some  kinds  of  wooden  fans.  On  each  tablet  is 
inscribed  an  alphabet  and  the  numeral  signals  for  its  letters, 
and  the  combinations  of  letters  generally  used.  The  alpha- 
bets are  so  arranged  that  the  alphabet  on  the  first  strip 
commences  with  the  letter  A  anil  its  signal  at  the  top  of  the 
strip  ;  the  letter  B  and  its  signal  are  at  the  top  of  the  second 
strip,  and  so  on.  In  enciphering  a  message,  a  countersign- 
word  being  given,  the  alphabets   and   signals  upon   these 


308  MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS. 

tablets  are  used,  each  being  taken  in  such  sequences  as  are 
indicated  by  the  letters  of  the  countersign-words. 

For  illustration  :  Suppose  the  countersign-word  to  be  Act, 
the  word  to  be  enciphered,  Board ;  then  the  numeral  signal 
for  the  letter  B  is  sought  on  the  tablet  commencing  with  A, 
the  signal  for  O  is  sought  on  the  tablet  commencing  with  C, 
the  signal  for  A  on  the  tablet  commencing  with  T.  The  key- 
word, act — a-c-t — has  now  been  once  used ;  so,  for  the  signal 
for  the  letter  R,  we  return  to  the  tablet  commencing  with 
A,  and  the  signal  for  D  is  sought  on  the  tablet  commen- 
cing with  C.  The  signal  to  indicate  the  close  of  a  word  is 
sought  on  the  tablet  T.  The  signal  for  the  first  letter  of 
the  next  word  is  found  on  the  tablet  A ;  and  so  by  repeti- 
tions of  the  process  the  message  is  completed. 

The  resulting  message  presents  no  distinguishing  marks 
by  which  the  end  of  address  or  ends  of  words  can  be  de- 
tected, and  no  character  need  be  twice  presented  by  the 
same  signal.  This  apparatus  is  compact,  the  plans  for 
working  it  are  easily  understood,  and  it  affords  a  simple  and 
very  effective  cipher.     (Plate  XXVII,  Fig.  5.) 


An  ingenious  arrangement  has  been  proposed  by  Private 
John  C.  Anton,  of  the  Signal  Corps.  The  alphabets,  with 
the  numerals  and  whatever  abbreviations  are  to  be  used,  are 
inscribed  upon  a  single  card.      (See  page  309.) 

The  description  of  this  card  or  disk,  and  the  manner  of 
usino-  it,  are  (riven  in  the  language  of  the  inventor: 

"  The  disk  should  be  made  of  enduring  material,  either 
tin  or  leather:  the  latter  is,  I  think,  the  best,  because  it  is 
light  and  pliable,  and  if  put  between  the  leaves  of  a  book  it 
bends  easy  with  the  book. 

"  The  first  horizontal  column  of  the  disk  shows  the  signal- 
numbers:  the  alphabets  below  it  should  be  separated  from  it 


MANUAL  OF   SIGNALS. 


309 


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B  &  B 

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a>|  Ml  Ml  Ml  Ml 

|  oooor. 

-:  1  asi  |  R,  1  ~i  |  M; 

by  a  broad  line,  to  distinguish  them,  and  each  one  of  a  dif- 
ferent color,  from  the  first  and  each  other. 

"  The  vertical  lines  should  be  of  a  different  color  from  the 
horizontal  lines  and  letters,  and  heavy,  to  facilitate  the 
finding  of  a  corresponding  number  to  a  letter,  or  vice  versa. 

"Below  the  alphabets  are  the  figures,  and  a  column  for 
signals  used,  consisting  of  several  words. 

"Transmission  of  a  Message. 

"  After  communication  is  established,  the  number  opposite 
any  one  of  the  alphabets  should  be  flagged  ;  it  indicates  the 
alphabet  which  should  be  used  first  to  find  the  1st  letter; 


310  MANUAL  OF   SIGNALS. 

but  it  may  be  agreed,  that  in  case  the  number  of  the  alpha- 
bet should  not  be  flagged,  the  first  horizontal  column  will 
be  always  used  to  begin  with. 

"To  find  the  2d  letter  of  the  word,  the  next  alphabet  be- 
low it  should  be  used,  and  so  on  successively;  after  the  last 
one,  the  alphabet  first  on  the  card  will  be  the  next  to  be 
used,  then  the  2d,  3d,  4th,  5th,  and  then  the  first  one  again. 
At  the  end  of  each  word  the  signal-number  over  the  short 
heavy  line  before  the  "  A"  indicates  the  end,  the  same  as 
5  formerly.  To  indicate  the  end  of  a  sentence,  that  number 
should  be  flagged  twice. 

"  If  figures  occur  in  the  message,  or  any  of  the  abbrevin- 
tions,  the  number  on  the  left  side  for  the  columns  of  the 
figures  and  abbreviations  333  and  4-44,  or  any  others  not 
among  the  signal-numbers  on  the  disk,  must  be  flagged  first ; 
and  alter  the  figures  are  sent,  the  same  number  again,  to  indi- 
cate that  letters  will  be  flagged  again.  After  sending  figures 
or  abbreviations  in  a  message,  it  may  be  agreed  either  to  com- 
mence with  the  first  alphabet  again  for  the  1st  letter,  or  to 
continue  with  the  next  alphabet  to  that  one  last  used  before 
the  1st  figure  or  abbreviation  was  flagged  ;  in  that  case  the 
finger  ought  to  be  held  on  the  last  used  alphabet  until  the 
figures  have  been  sent.  It  is  obvious  that  the  signal- 
numbers  for  a  figure  or  an  abbreviation  will  be  always  the 
same  on  this  disk  ;  if  that  should  be  objectionable,  a  disk 
which  has  the  signal-numbers  instead  of  letters  in  the  5  hori- 
zontal rows  and  the  alphabet  on  the  top,  would  answer  the 
purpose.  By  using  this  disk  and  flagging  figures  or  abbre- 
viations, "another  row  of  signal-numbers  should  be  used  for 
each  following  figure  or  abbreviation,  the  same  as  if  flagging 
numbers  for  letters ;  but  the  number  444  or  333,  opposite  the 
two  lower  rows,  should  not  be  omitted" to  be  flagged,  before 
flao-oino:  them,  the  same  as  with  the  other." 

By  the  use  of  this  card  results  similar  to  those  attained 
by  the  plan  of  Sergeant  Hawley  are  had. 


MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS.  311 

This  form  of  cipher  card  lias  the  advantage  of  simplicity 
of  structure,  and  of  the  fact  that  a  card  can  be  at  any  time 
prepared  by  the  signalist  who  may  need  it.  It  can  be  easily 
carried  in  a  Field  Book. 


ROUTE  CIPHERS. 

Messages  may  be  enciphered  by  Route  Ciphers,  to  be 
sent  by  messengers  or  to  be  telegraphed  by  signals. 

Route  Ciphers  are  those  in  which  the  words  of  the  mes- 
sage are  retained  unchanged,  but  so  disarranged  by  con- 
certed rules  that  the  message  becomes  unintelligible. 

The  message  as  received  seems  to  be  a  number  of  discon- 
nected words  and  without  meaning.  These  words,  arranged 
in  a  certain  order  by  certain  rules,  convey  a  perfect  message. 
A  common  mode  of  forming  route  ciphers  is  to  form  the 
words  of  the  message  in  columns.  A  route,  as  it  is  called, 
is  issued  to  the  correspondents  thus: 

"Form  to  be  four  columns,  four  words  each.  Route: 
Doicn  the  first  column ;  up  the  fourth  ;  dovm  the  second ; 
up  the  third.  Fifth  word  blind."  A  set  of  columns  being 
drawn — as, 


write  the  Avords  of  the  message  given  in  their  proper  se- 
quence, doicn  in  the  first  column,  up  the  fourth,  doicn  the 
second,  and  up  the  third. 

The  message  must  be  of  a  certain  number  of  words,  so 
as  to  exactly  fill,  for  instance,  four  columns  of  four  words 
each. 

If  the  message,  as  written,  is  not  of  this  length,  there  must 


312  MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS. 

be  added  to  it  some  words  having  no  meaning,  or  a  meaning 
irrelevant  to  the  subject  of  the  message.  Thus  a  military- 
message  may  be  eked  out  with  a  sentence ;  as,  "  The  wheat 
crop  is  doing  well,"  or,  "The  steamer  Africa  has  just  ar- 
rived." 

Points  of  punctuation  are  written  in  the  columns  with  and 
just  after  the  words  they  follow  in  the  copy. 

In  some  cases  blind  words,  as  they  are  called,  are  added 
to  the  message.  These  are  words  added  to  the  message  to 
confuse  it;  thus,  every  fifth  or  every  sixth  word  may  be  a 
blind  word,  and  they  may  be  so  managed  as  to  wholly  per- 
vert the  meaning.  Blind  words  are  inserted  in  the  copy  as 
the  message  is  being  written  out  in  cipher  from  the  columns 
in  which  it  is  first  formed.  To  decipher  such  a  message, 
reference  is  had  to  the  instructions  for  the  "  Route." 

A  message  being  received,  the  blind  words,  found  by 
their  location,  are  stricken  out ;  the  remaining  words  are 
then  set  off  by  sets — the  number  of  words  in  each  set  being 
equal  to  the  number  of  columns  given  in  the  "  Route."  A 
number,  as  No.  1,  No.  2,  No.  3,  etc.,  is  given  to  each  word 
in  each  set.  A  corresponding  figure  is  written  over  each 
word.  The  words  are  then  placed  in  columns ; — all  the 
No.  1  words  in  the  first  column  ;  the  No.  2  words  in  the 
second  column ;  and  so  on. 

After  the  words  are  so  arranged,  they  are  read  or  written 
in  the  order  prescribed  by  the  "  Route." 

To  encipher,  by  the  "Route"  given  above,  the  following 

message : 

"  The  enemy  has  changed  his  position  during  the  night. 
Deserters  say  that  he  is  retreating" — 

The  words  of  this  message  placed,  one  after  the  other,  in 
four  columns  —  four  words  in  each — and  down  the  first 
column,  up  the  fourth,  down  the  second,  and  up  the  third, 
are  as  follows : 


MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS. 


313 


COLUMNS. 


1st. 

2d. 

3d. 

4th 

The 

night. 

0 

Smith 

the 

enemy 

Deserters 

retreating 

during 

has 

say 

is 

position 

changed 

1 

that 

he 

his 

The  instruction  in  this  "Route,"  "every  fifth  word  blind," 
means  that  every  fifth  word  in  the  cipher  is  a  word  added 
to  confuse.     These  words  are  chosen  arbitrarily. 

The  message  formed  above  is  written — reading:  across  the 
columns  and  adding  a  blind  word  to  every  four  above  given 
— thus: 

"  The  night.  Smith  the  attacking  enemy  Deserters  re- 
treating during  summer  has  say  is  position  unchanged 
changed  that  he  his  him." 

The  words  "attacking,"  "summer,"  "unchanged,"  "him," 
are  the  blind  words  added. 

The  communication  is  now  ready  to  be  transmitted  by 
messenger  or  signals. 

To  decipher  this  message,  having  the  route  as  above 
given : 

1st.  Every  fifth  word  is  stricken  out  as  blind,  thus — 

The  night.  Smith  the  attacking  enemy  Deserters  re- 
treating during  summer  has  say  is  position  unchanged 
changed  that  he  his  him. 

2d.  The  remaining  words  are  told  off  by  fours,  that  being 
the  number  of  columns  given — thus : 


l* 


314 


MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS. 


1 

1 

The 

2 
night 

3 
Smith 

4 
the 

1 

enemy 

2 
Deserters 

3 

retreating 

4 
during 

1 
has 

.2 

say 

3 

is 

4 
position 

1 
changed 

2 
that 

3 

he 

4 
his 

3d.  Formed  in  this  manner  the  -words  are  in  columns, 
and  the  message  is  read :  Down  the  first,  up  the  fourth, 
down  the  second,  and  up  the  third  ;  giving  the  original 


message 


"  The  enemy  has  changed  his  position  during  the  night. 
Deserters  say  that  he  is  retreating." 

As  an  additional  complication,  it  is  customary  to  leave 
in  the  possession  of  each  correspondent  a  dictionary  or  code 
in  -which  the  names  of  all  prominent  generals  or  places,  and 
many  of  the  prominent  verbs —  as  to  march,  to  sail,  to  en- 
camp, to  attack,  to  retreat — are  represented  by  other  words. 
Thus,  General  Grant  may  be  known  as  Ironsides  ;  Sherman 
as  Lightning:  Washington  may  be  Queen  City;  "to 
march"  may  be  "to  halt,"  and  so  on. 

The  message  so  guarded  falling  into  the  hands  of  an  enemy 
is  unintelligible,  even  though  it  were  possible  to  correctly 
arrange  the  dislocated  words. 

The  following  message  is  another  example: 

"  What  are  the  enemy  doing?  I  shall  move  all  my  artil- 
lery to-night,  and  shall  attack  at  daylight.  Send  me  one 
thousand  cavalry,  four  thousand  infantry,  and  all  the  pro- 
visions you  can  spare." 


MANUAL   OF    SIGNALS. 


315 


Form  to  be  0  columns,  6  words  each.  Route — Up  1st 
column,  down  the  3d,  up  the  2d,  down  the  5th,  up  the  6th, 
down  the  4th. 

Lay  oil'  the  form  C  columns,  G  spaces  in  each  column. 
Commencing  at  the  foot  of  the  first  column,  write  the  first 
six  words  up  that  column;  the  next  six  words  are  to  be 
written  down  the  3d  column,  the  next  six  are  to  be  written 
up  the  2d  column,  the  next  six  doion  the  5th  column,  the 
next  six  up  the  Gth  column,  and  the  remaining  two  down 
the  4th  column. 

The  messaare  so  written  stands  thus — the  words  "  Jones  is 
very  sick,"  being  added  to  fill  out  the  4th  column : 


I 

doin<?? 
enemy 

the 

are 
What 


send 

daylight 

at 

attack 

shall 

and 


shall 

can 

move 

spare 

all 

Jones 

my 

is 

artillery 

very 

to-night 

sick 

me 

one 

thousand 

cavalry 

four 
thousand 


you 

provisions 

the 

all 

and 
infantry 


Removed  from  the  columns,  it  reads  :  "  I  send  shall  can 
me  you  doing?  daylight  move  spare  one  provisions  enemy 
at  all  Jones  thousand  the  the  attack  my  is  cavalry  all  are 
shall  artillery  very  four  and  what  and  to-night  sick  thousand 
infantry." 

To  decipher,  the  words  are  placed  again  by  sixes  in  col- 
umns, and  being  read  according  to  the  Route,  the  message 
is  correctly  had. 


316 


MANUAL  OF   SIGNALS. 


1 
I 

2 
send 

3 
shall 

4 
can 

5 

me 

6 

you 

1 

doing  ? 

2 
daylight 

3 
move 

4 
spare 

5 

one 

6 
provisions 

1 

enemy 

2 
at 

3 

all 

4 
Jones 

5 
thousand 

6 
the 

1 

the 

2 
attack 

3 

my 

4 
is 

5 

cavalry 

6 
all 

1 
are 

2 
shall 

3 

artillery 

4 
very 

5 

four 

6 
and 

1 

What 

2 
and 

3 

to-night 

4 
sick 

5 

thousand 

6 
infantry 

The  instructions  for  a  Route  Cipher  to  be  sent  by  a  mes- 
senger may  be  obscurely  written  thus : 


1st       2d         6th 
3d       5  th        4th 


,5th 


may  be  read,  "  Read  1st  up,  3d  down,  2d  up,  5th  down, 
6th  up,  4th  down,"  as  the  numbers  are  above  or  below  an 
imaginary  line.  The  figure  standing  on  the  line  is  read 
"5th  Blind." 

The  Forms,  the  Routes,  and  the  dispositions  of  the  Blind 
Words  may  be  varied  infinitely. 

The  forms  may  be  of  any  number  of  columns,  and  any 
number  of  words  in  a  column.  Thus,  the  Form  may  be  six 
columns — two  words  in  each  column ;  or  three  columns — five 
words  in  each  column ;  and  so  for  any  changes.    The  Routes 


MANUAL  OF  SIGNALS.  317 

and  the  distribution  of  the  Blind  Words  are  any  that  in- 
genuity may  devise. 

The  cipher  is  interesting  from  the  fact  that  messages  can 
be  so  formed  as  to  convey,  when  read  in  cipher,  a  meaning 
the  reverse  of  that  which  is  had  when  they  are  correctly 
interpreted. 

By  numbering  the  words  in  Webster's  Dictionary,  and 
by  making  the  number  of  any  word  by  signals,  using  any 
kind  of  code,  any  word  or  words  may  be  signalled  entire. 
These  numbers  written  on  paper  would  be  a  good  cipher. 
The  words  in  Naval  Vocabularies  or  the  sentences  in  Signal- 
Books  may  be  numbered  or  signalled  after  this  fashion. 
By  extending  arrangements  of  two  elements  to  about  fif- 
teen places,  a  separate  signal  may  be  had  for  each  word  of 
the  English  language.  Now  if  a  dictionary  is  made  poly- 
glott,  all  the  words  of  any  language  may  be  signalled  by 
each  word  being  symbolized  by  a  single  arrangement. 
There  are  thus  spaces  between  words  only,  and  so  greater 
brevity.  The  sentences  in  Naval  Signal-Books  may  have 
such  indices  set  for  each. 

Page  318  exhibits  a  form  of  cipher  used  by  the  rebels  at 
Vicksbnrg,  and  afterward  generally  in  their  service  during 
the  war  of  the  rebellion.  The  letters  of  the  Alphabet,  as 
there  arranged,  are  to  be  written  upon  a  card. 

To  conceal  a  message,  the  rules  given  on  page  319  are  to 
be  observed.  A  word  or  words  known  as  key-words  are 
adopted  :  these  are  furnished  in  instructions  to  the  officer  to 
use  them.  Then  under  each  letter  of  the  message  to  be 
sent  write  the  letters  of  the  key-word,  repeating  it  as  often 
as  the  number  of  letters  in  each  sentence  of  the  message 
requires,  and  always  commencing  a  neAV  sentence  with  the 
first  letter  of  the  key-Avord.  Find  in  the  table  the  first  let- 
ter of  the  message  perpendicularly  under  the  letter  A  ;  then 
find  the  first  letter  of  the  key-word  horizontally  opposite  A. 
The  letter  at  the  intersection  of  the  horizontal  and  perpen- 


318  MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS. 

ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ 
BODEFGIIIJKLMNOPQR  S  T  U  V  W  X  Y  Z  A 
CDEFOHIJKLMNO  PQRSTUTWXT  Z  A  B 
DEFGHI  JKLMNO  PQR  STUVWX  YZ  AB  C 
EFGH  IJKLMNO  PQRSTUVWXY  ZA  BCD 
FGHI  JKLMNO  PQR  STUVWXYZ  AB  ODE 
GHIJKLMNOP  QR  STUVWX  YZ  ABC  DEF 
II  IJKLMNOPQ  RS  TUVWXY  ZA  BCDE  FG 
I  JKLMNOPQRS  TUVWXYZ  AB  C  DEFGH 
JKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ  AB  C  DE  FGHI 
KLMNOPQRSTUYWXYZABCDEFGni  J 
LMNOPQR STUVWX YZABC  DE  FG  II  IJE 
MNOPQRS  TUVWXYZ  ABCD  EFGH  I  JKL 
N  0  P  Q  R  S  T  U  V  W  X  Y  Z  A  BCDE  FGHI  J  KLM 
OPQEfiT  U  V  WX  YZABCDEFGIIIJKLMN 
P  Q  R  S  T  U  V  W  X  Y  Z  A  B  C  D  E  F  G  II  UK  L  M  N  0 
QRSTUVWXYZAB  CD  EFGH  I  JKLM  NO  P 
USTUVWXYZABC  D  E  FGHI  J  KLMN  0  P  Q 
S  T  U  V  WX  YZABCDEFGIII  J  KLMNO  PQR 
TUVWXYZABCDE  FGHIJK  LMNO  P  Q  R  S 
U  V  W  XYZABCDEFG  II   IJKL  MNOPQRS   T 

V  WX  YZABCDEFG  II  IJKLMNOPQ  R  S  TU 
WXYZABCDEFGH  IJKLMN  OPQ  R  S  T  UV 
XYZ  A BCDEFGH  IJKLMNO   PQR   S   TU   V  "W 

Y  ZABC  DEFGH  I  JKLM  NOP  QR  S  T  UVWX 
Z  ABCDEFGHI  JKLMNOPQR  S  TU  VWXY 


MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS.  319 

dicular  columns,  starting  from  the  two  letters  thus  found, 
Avill  be  the  cipher-letter  to  be  written  in  place  of  the  true 
letter. 

The  same  process  is  required  for  each  letter,  until  tin- 
message  becomes  complete. 

To  interpret  such  a  cipher  the  process  must  be  reversed. 
Write  as  before  the  letters — the  letters  of  the  key-word 
under  those  of  the  cipher;  take  the  first  letter  of  the  key- 
word in  the  table  opposite  A,  and  trace  down  that  column 
till  the  iirst  letter  of  the  cipher  is  found;  the  letter  oppo- 
site this,  and  perpendicularly  under  A,  will  be  the  first  letter 
of  the  message;  and  so  on  until  the  message  is  complete. 

Illusteatiox. 

The  key-word  being  "complete  victory,"  to  encipher  the 
message  "the  army  will  move  to-night."  Writing  under 
the  letters  of  the  message  the  correspondent  letters  of  repe- 
titions of  "  complete  victory,"  we  have : 

The      army     will       move      tonight. 
Com     plet      evic       tory     coinplet. 

Taking  T  at  the  side  of  the  table  and  C  at  the  top,  and 
following  the  columns  in  which  they  are  to  their  intersection, 
we  find  the  letter  V.  Record  this  as  the  first  letter  of  the 
eipher  message.  Then  take  11  at  the  side  and  O  at  the  top; 
we  find  at  the  intersection  Y.  Record  this  as  second  letter 
of  the  cipher.  Taking  E  at  the  side  and  M  at  the  top,  we 
have  at  the  intersection  the  letter  Q  as  third  letter  of  the 
cipher.  The  word  "  the"  is  thus  in  cipher  "  v  v  q,"  and  is 
so  written.  The  words  of  the  whole  message  enciphered 
in  the  same  manner  become 

"  v  v  q  -  p  c  q  r  -  a  d  t  n  -  f  c  m  c  -  v  c  z  x  r  1  m." 


320  MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS. 

To  decipher  this  cipher:  writing  under   the   letters   the 
correspondent  letters  of  the  key-word,  we  have 

"vvq-pc  q  r-a  d  t  n-f  c  m  c-v  czxrl  m." 
Com- pi   et    evic   tory    comple   t. 

Finding  the  letter  "  C"  at  the  top  of  the  table,  and  tracing 
down  that  column  to  the  letter  "  V,"  we  find  opposite  this 
letter,  at  the  side  of  table,  and  perpendicularly  under  the 
letter  "A,"  the  letter  "T."  Record  this  as  the  first  letter - 
of  message.  Find  next  the  letter  "  O"  at  top  of  table ;  trace 
down  the  column  to  the  letter  "  V,"  and  opposite  this,  at 
the  side  of  the  table,  is  "  H,"  the  second  letter  of  the  mes- 
sage. Find  "  M,"  at  the  top  of  the  table ;  trace  down  the 
column  to  "  Q,"  and  at  the  side  is  the  letter  "  E."  The  word 
"  the"  is  then  found.  By  such  process  repeated,  the  whole 
cipher  is  interpreted. 

It  is  a  labor  to  trace  out  the  columns  by  hand  upon  the 
card,  and  a  machine  was  sometimes  used  for  this  purpose. 
The  structure  of  the  apparatus  will  be  understood  by  refer- 
ence to  Plate  XXVII,  Fig.  4.  The  cylinder  C  was  made  to 
rotate  easily  on  its  axis,  and  upon  its  surface  were  inscribed 
the  letters  in  the  order  given  in  the  card.  Above  the  cylin- 
der was  the  fixed  pointer  P  and  the  movable  pointer  P' ; — 
the  fixed  pointer  arranged  to  bear  upon  the  first  column  of 
letters  on  the  cylinder ;  the  movable  pointer  traversing  so 
as  to  bear  upon  any  column. 

The  cylinder  being  then  so  placed  that  the  letters  of  the 
first  horizontal  line  of  the  cipher-card  come  beneath  the 
pointers,  and  the  two  indicating  letters  of  the  message  being 
determined  as  in  the  preceding  instance,  the  movable  pointer 
is  moved  upon  the  slide  so  as  to  bear  upon  that  indicating 
letter  to  be  sought  at  the  top  or  in  the  first  horizontal  line 
of  the  card.  The  cylinder  is  then  rotated  until  the  fixed 
pointer  P  bears  upon  the  indicating  letter  to  be  sought  at 


MANUAL  OF  SIGNALS.  321 

the  side  or  in  the  first  vertical  column  of  the  card,  when  it 
will  be  found  that  the  pointer  P*  bears  upon  the  letter  at 
the  intersection  of  the  columns,  the  cipher-letter  required. 

This  machine  is  equally  useful  for  enciphering  or  deci- 
phering a  message. 

A  cipher  similar  in  character  to  that  just  described,  was 
formed  by  a  kind  of  mathematical  calculation  under  the  fol- 
lowing rules : 

Commit  to  memory  the  alphabet  by  numbers — viz.,  A,  1 ; 
B,  2;  C,  3;  D,  4  ;  E,  5;  F,  6  ;  G,  7;  H,  8 ;  1,9;  J,  10; 
K,  11;  L,  12;  M,  13;  X,  14;  O,  15;  P,  16;  Q,  17; 
R,  18;  S,  19;  T,  20;  C,  21;  V,  22;  W,  23;  X,  24; 
Y,  25  ;  Z,  26. 

Take  for  example  the  key-sentence  "A  discovery,"  and 
for  a  message,  "  Send  me  powder  to-night."  Write  your 
message  out  plainly,  thus  : 

send       me       powder        to        night 
14   9   19        3   15     22  5  18  25    1   4        9   19        3    15  22  5  18 

s   h  v   v        os       ksnbeu        bg         pwblk 

Under  the  message  write  the  figures,  corresponding  to  the 
key-sentence.  It  will  be  in  this  example — viz.,  a  is  1,  d  is  4, 
i  is  9,  s  is  19,  c  is  3  (or  third  letter  of  the  alphabet) ;  and 
so  on  to  the  end  of  the  key-sentence,  repeating  when  the 
message  is  longer  than  the  key-sentence,  as  in  this  ex- 
ample. 

In  rendering  a  message  into  cipher  you  add  together  the 
number  of  the  key-letter  and  corresponding  number  of  the 
message-letter,  taking  the  number  of  the  key  one  less  than 
is  written  down.  Thus  s,  is  19,  19-f  0  is  19,  or  s,  the  letter 
to  be  sent;  e  is  5,  5  +  3  is  8,  the  8th  letter  of  the  alphabet 
is  h  ;  n  is  14,  14  +  8  is  22  or  v ;  d  is  4,  4  +  18  is  22  or  v;  m 
is  13,  13  +  2  is  15  or  o;  e  is  5,  5  +  14  is  19  or  s  ;  p  is  16,  16  +  21 

14* 


b 

g 

p  w   b   1    k 

9 

19 

3    15  22  5  18 

t 

0 

night 

322  MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS. 

is  37.  There  being  but  26  letters  in  the  alphabet,  when 
the  addition  exceeds  that  number,  you  will  find  by  how 
many,  and  the  number  of  the  overplus  is  the  number  of 
the  letter  required.  In  this  instance  the  overplus  is  11 
(37  —  20  =  11),  which  is  the  letter  K;  and  so  on  to  the  end 
of  the  message. 

To  translate  a  message,  you  will  subtract  the  number  of 
the  keydetter,  one  less  than  is  written  down,  from  the  cor- 
responding number  of  the  cipher  message  received. 

shvv  os  ksnbeu 
14  9  19  3  15  22  5  18  25  1  4 
send       me       powder 

s  is  19,  19  —  0  =  19,  which  is  the  letter  s;  h  is  8,  8  —  3=5  or 
e;  v  is  22,  22  —  8  =  14  or  n;  v  is  22,  22  —  18  =  4  or  d ;  o  is 
15,  15  —  2  =  13  orm;  sis  19,  19  —  14  =  5  or  e ;  k  is  11,  11  —  21. 
When  the  minuend  is  less  than  the  subtrahend,  in  all  cases 
add  26  (the  number  of  letters  in  the  alphabet)  to  the  min- 
uend, and  the  remainder  will  be  the  number  desired  in  this 
case:  11  +  26  =  37,  37  —  21  =  16  or  the  letterp;  and  so  on  to 
the  end  of  the  message. 

All  that  is  necessary  in  this  method  is  to  commit  to  mem- 
ory the  numbers  of  the  letters  of  the  alphabet. 

In  rendering  a  message  into  cipher,  add  the  numbers  of 
the  message  and  key-sentence  together,  always  remember- 
ing to  take  the  key-number  one  less  than  is  written  down. 

In  translating  a  cipher  message,  subtract  the  key-number 
from  the  number  of  the  message,  taking  the  key-number  one 
less  than  is  written  down. 

In  both  rendering  and  deciphering  a  message,  always  take 
the  kev-number  one  less  than  is  written  down. 


The  following  article  gives,  in  a  pleasant  way,  so  many 


MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS.  323 

of  the  modes  and  curiosities  of  cipher,  and  so  practical  an 
illustration  of  the  deciphering  of  a  cipher  message,  that  it 
is  extracted  at  length  from  "Harper's  Weekly,"  December 
19,  18G3: 

"MODES  AND   CURIOSITIES   OF   CIPHER. 

"  In  1080,  when  M.  de  Louvois  was  French  Minister  of  War,  he 
summoned  before  him  one  day  a  gentleman  named  Chamilly,  and 
gave  him  the  following  instructions: 

'"Start  this  evening  for  Basle,  in  Switzerland;  you  will  reach  it 
in  three  days  ;  on  the  fourth,  punctually  at  two  o'clock,  station  your- 
self on  the  bridge  over  the  Rhine  with  a  portfolio,  ink,  and  pen. 
"Watch  all  that  takes  place,  and  make  a  memorandum  of  every  par- 
ticular. Continue  doing  so  for  two  hours ;  have  a  carriage  and  post- 
horses  awaiting  you ;  and  at  four  precisely  mount  and  travel,  day 
and  night,  till  you  reach  Paris.  On  the  instant  of  your  arrival, 
hasten  to  me  with  your  notes.' 

"  De  Chamilly  obeyed ;  he  reached  Basle,  and  on  the  day  and  at 
the  hour  appointed,  stationed  himself,  pen  in  hand,  on  the  bridge. 
Presently  a  market-cart  drives  by ;  then  an  old  woman  with  a 
basket  of  fruit  passes ;  anon  a  little  urchin  trundles  his  hoop  by  ; 
next  an  old  gentleman  in  blue  top-coat  jogs  past  on  his  gray  mare. 
Three  o'clock  chimes  from  the  cathedral  tower.  Just  at  the  last 
stroke,  a  tall  fellow,  in  yellow  waistcoat  and  breeches,  saunters  up, 
goes  to  the  middle  of  the  bridge,  lounges  over,  and  looks  at  the 
water;  then  he  takes  a  step  back,  and  strikes  three  hearty  blows  on 
the  footway  with  his  staff.  Down  goes  every  detail  in  De  Cha- 
milly's  book.  At  last  the  hour  of  release  sounds,  and  he  jumps  into 
his  carriage.  Shortly  before  midnight,  after  two  days'  ceaseless 
travelling.  De  Chamilly  presented  himself  before  the  minister,  feeling 
rather  ashamed  at  having  such  trifles  to  record.  M.  de  Louvois 
took  the  portfolio  with  eagerness  and  glanced  over  the  notes.  As 
his  eye  caught  the  mention  of  the  yellow-breeched  man,  a  gleam 
of  jojr  flashed  across  his  countenance.  He  rushed  to  the  king, 
roused  him  from  sleep,  spoke  in  private  with  him  for  a  few*noments, 
and  then  four  couriers,  who  had  been  held  in  readiness  since  live 
on  the  preceding  evening,  were  dispatched  with  haste.  Eight  days 
after,  the  town  of  Strasbourg  was  entirely  surrounded  by  French 
troops  and  summoned  to  surrender;    it  capitulated,  and  threw  open 


324  MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS. 

its  gates  on  the  30th  September,  1681.  Evidently  the  three  strokes 
of  the  stick,  given  by  the  fellow  in  yellow  costume  at  an  appointed 
hour,  were  the  signal  of  the  success  of  an  intrigue  concerted  between 
M.  de  Louvois  and  the  magistrates  of  Strasbourg ;  and  the  man  who 
executed  this  mission  was  as  ignorant  of  the  motive  as  was  M.  de 
Chamilly  of  the  motive  of  his. 

"  Now  this  is  a  specimen  of  the  safest  of  all  secret  communications, 
but  it  can  only  be  resorted  to  on  certain  rare  occasions.  When  a 
lengthy  dispatch  is  required  ty  be  forwarded,  and  when  such  means 
as  those  given  above  are  out  of  the  question,  some  other  method 
must  be  employed.  Herodotus  gives  us  a  story  to  the  point ;  it  is 
found,  also,  with  variations,  in  Aulus  Gelliu9: 

"  '  llistiaeus,  when  he  was  anxious  to  give  Aristagoras  orders  to 
revolt,  could  find  but  one  safe  way,  as  the  roads  were  guarded,  of 
making  his  wishes  known :  which  was  by  taking  the  truest  of  his 
slaves,  shaving  all  the  hair  off  his  head,  and  then  pricking  letters 
upon  the  skin,  and  waiting  till  the  hair  grew  again.  This  accord- 
ingly he  did ;  and  as  soon  as  ever  the  hair  was  grown,  he  dispatched 
the  man  to  Miletus,  giving  him  no  other  message  than  this :  '  When 
thou  art  come  to  Miletus,  bid  Aristagoras  shave  thy  head  and  look 
thereon.'  Now  the  marks  on  the  man's  head  were  a  command  to 
revolt.'     (Bk.  v.  115.) 

"  In  this  case  no  cipher  was  employed.  We  shall  come  now  tu 
the  use  of  ciphers. 

"  When  a  dispatch  or  communication  runs  great  risk  of  falling 
into  the  hands  of  an  enemy,  it  is  necessary  that  its  contents  should 
be  so  veiled  that  the  possession  of  the  document  may  afford  him  no 
information  whatever.  Julius  Caesar  and  Augustus  used  ciphers, 
but  they  were  of  the  utmost  simplicity,  as  they  consisted  merely  in 
placing  D  in  the  place  of  A,  E  in  that  of  B,  and  so  on ;  or  else  in 
writing  B  for  A,  C  for  B,  etc. 

"  Secret  characters  were  used  at  the  Council  of  Nicaea ;  and  Ra- 
banus  Maurus,  Abbot  of  Fulda  and  Archbishop  of  Mayence,  in  the 
ninth  century,  has  left  us  an  example  of  two  ciphers,  the  key  to 
which  was  discovered  by  the  Benedictines.  It  is  only  a  wonder 
that  any  one  could  have  failed  to  unravel  them  at  the  first  glance. 
This  is  a  specimen  of  the  first. 

"  '  .Nc.p.t  v:rs:-:s  B::n.f:C.  :rch.  gl::r::S.q:-::m:rt.r.s' 

"  The  clue  to  this  is  the  suppression  of  the  vowels  and  the  filling 
of  their  places  by  dots— one  for  i,  two  for  a,  three  for  e,  four  for  o, 


MANUAL  OF   SIGNALS.  325 

and  five  for  u.  In  the  second  example,  the  same  sentence  would 
run— Knckpkt  vfrsxs  Bpnkfbckk,  etc.,  the  vowel-places  being  tilled 
by  the  consonants— b,  f,  k,  p,  x.  By  changing  every  letter  in  the 
alphabet,  we  make  a  vast  improvement  on  this  last :  thus,  for  in- 
stance, supplying  the  place  of  a  with  z,  b  with  x,  c  with  v,  and  so 
on.  This  is  the  system  employed  by  an  advertiser  in  a  provincial 
paper,  which  we  took  up  the  other  day  in  the  waiting-room  of  a 
station,  where  it  had  been  left  by  a  farmer.  As  we  had  some 
moments  to  spare  before  the  train  was  due,  we  spent  them  in  de- 
ciphering the  following: 

"  '  Jp  Sjddjzb  rza  rzdd  ci  sijmr,  Bziw  rzdd  xr  ndzt.' 

And  in  ten  minutes  read  :  '  If  "William  can  call  or  write,  Mary  will 
be  glad.' 

"  A  correspondence  was  carried  on  in  the  '  Times'  during  May, 
1862,  in  cipher.    We  give  it  along  with  the  explanation  : 

WWS.-Zv  Efpdolj  T  dpye  1  wpeepc  ez  mjeyp  qzc  jzf— xlj  T 
daply  qfwwj  zy  lww  xleepcd  le  esp  tyepcgtph?  Te  xlj  oz 
rzzo.  Ecfde  ez  xj  wzgp— T  lx  xtdpclmwp.  Hspy  xlj  T  rz  ez  Nlye- 
pcmfcj  tq  zywj  ez  wzzy  le  jzf. — May  8.' 

"  This  means—1  On  Tuesday  I  sent  a  letter  to  Byrne  for  you. 
May  I  speak  fully  on  all  matters  at  the  interview  ?  It  may  do  good. 
Trust  to  my  love.  I  am  miserable.  When  may  I  go  to  Canter- 
bury, if  only  to  look  at  you  ?' 

"A  couple  of  days  later  Byrne  advertises,  slightly  varying  the 
cipher : 

WWS.-  Sxhrdktg  hdbtewxcv  "Tmwxqxixdc  axzt"  udg  pcdewtg 
psktgexhtbtce.    QNGCT.    "  Discover  something  Exhibition- 
like  for  another  advertisement. — Byrne." 

"  This  gentleman  is  rather  mysterious  :  we  must  leave  our  readers 
to  conjecture  what  he  means  by  '  Exhibition-like.'  On  Wednesday 
came  two  advertisements — one  from  the  lady,  one  from  the  lover. 
WWS.  herself  seems  rather  sensible. 

TYDEPLO  zq  rztyr  ez  nlyepcmfej,  T  estyv  jzf  slo  xfns  mpeepc 
delj  le  szxp  lyo  xtyo  jzfc  mfdtypdd.— WWS.,  May  10. 

"'Instead  of  going  to  Canterbury,  I  think  you  had  much  better 
stay  at  home  and  mind  your  business.' 


326  MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS. 

"  Excellent  advice ;  but  how  far  likely  to  be  taken  by  the  eager 
wooer,  who  advertises  thus : 

TTTWS. — Fyetwjzfe  qlspc  lydhpcd  T  hzye  ldv  jzf  ez  aczgp  jzf 
V  V    wzgp  xp.     Efpdolj  ytrse  le  zyp  znwznvslgp  1  dectyr  qczx  esp 
htyozh  qzc  wpeepcd.     Tq  jzt  lcp  yze  lmwp  le  zyp  T  htww  hite. 
Rzo  nzxqzce  jzf  xj  olcwtyr  htqp. 

"  '  Until  your  father  answers  I  won't  ask  you  to  prove  you  love 
me.  Tuesday  night  at  one  o'clock  have  a  string  from  the  window 
for  letters.  If  you  are  not  able  at  one,  I  will  wait.  God  comfort 
you,  my  darling  wife.' 

"  "When  the  Chevalier  de  Eohan  was  in  the  Bastile,  his  friends 
wanted  to  convey  to  him  the  intelligence  that  his  accomplice  was 
dead  without  having  confessed.  They  did  so  by  passing  the  follow- 
ing words  into  his  dungeon,  written  on  a  shirt,  '  Mg  dulhxcclgu  ghj 
yxuj  ;  lm  ct  ulgc  alj.'  In  vain  did  he  puzzle  over  the  cipher,  to 
which  he  had  not  the  clue.  It  was  too  short ;  for  the  shorter  a  cipher 
letter,  the  more  difficult  it  is  to  make  out.  The  light  faded,  and  he 
tossed  on  his  hard  bed,  sleeplessly  revolving  the  mystic  letters  in  his 
brain ;  but  he  could  make  nothing  out  of  them.  Day  dawned, 
and  with  its  first  gleam  he  was  poring  over  them  :  still  in  vain.  He 
pleaded  guilty,  for  he  could  not  decipher,  '  Le  prisonnier  est  mort ; 
il  rHa  rien  dit? 

"  We  noticed  in  a  back  number  of  '  Once  a  Week'  some  verses,  or 
a  story,  we  forget  which,  signed  Azile  Nostaw.  Did  the  writer 
really  intend  concealing  her  name  by  simply  inverting  it?  It  was 
readable  at  a  glance,  and  she  might  just  as  well  have  signed  in  the 
way  of  ordinary  humdrum  folk.  If,  however,  you  invert  a  message 
and  then  turn  it  into  cipher,  the  difficulty  of  reading  it  is  greatly 
enhanced. 

"  Another  method  of  veiling  a  communication  is  that  of  employ- 
ing numbers  or  arbitrary  signs  in  the  place  of  letters ;  and  this 
admits  of  many  refinements.  Here  is  an  example  to  test  the  reader's 
sagacity : 

"  §f431  45  2  +  9  +  §51  4=3732  +  287  45  2  +  »tl=  + 

"  We  just  give  the  hint  that  it  is  a  proverb. 

"  The  following  is  much  more  ingenious  and  difficult  of  detec- 
tion : 


MANUAL  OF   SIGNALS. 


O07 


r 

A 

B 

C 

D 

E 

F 

G 

II 

A 

a 

d 

9 

k 

n 

Q 

I 

X 

B 

b 

e 

h 

I 

0 

r 

u 

y 

C 

G 

f 

i 

m 

P 

s 

w 

z 

"  Xow  suppose  that  I  want  to  write  England ;  I  look  among  the 
small  letters  in  the  foregoing  tahle  for  e,  and  tincl  that  it  is  in  a  hori- 
zontal line  with  B,  and  vertical  line  with  b,  so  I  write  down  Bb;  n 
is  in  liue  with  A  and  e,  so  I  put  down  ae  ;  continue  this,  and  Eng- 
land will  he  represented  by  Bbaeaebdaaaeab.  Two  letters  to  repre- 
sent one  is  not  over  tedious;  but  the  scheme  devised  by  Lord 
Bacon  is  clumsy  enough.  He  represented  every  letter  by  permuta- 
tions of  a  and  b  ;  for  instance  : 

A  was  written  aaaaa,  B  was  written  aaaab, 
C  was  written  aaaba,  D  was  written  aabaa, 

and  so  through  the  alphabet  Paris  would  thus  be  transformed 
into  abbba,  aaaaa,  baaaa,  abaan,  banab.  Conceive  the  labor  of  com- 
posing a  whole  dispatch  like  this,  and  the  great  likelihood  of  making 
blunders  in  it ! 

'"  A  much  simpler  method  is  the  following  : 

"  The  sender  and  receiver  of  the  communication  must  be  agreed 
upon  a  certain  book  of  a  specified  edition.  The  dispatch  begins 
with  a  number  ;  this  indicates  the  page  to  which  the  reader  is  to 
turn.  He  must  then  count  the  letters  from  the  top  of  the  page,  and 
give  them  their  value  numerically,  according  to  the  order  in  which 
they  come,  omitting  those  which  are  repeated.  By  these  numbers 
he  reads  his  dispatch,  As  an  example,  let  us  take  the  beginning  of 
this  article:  then  1=1, n=2,  w=3,  7i=i,  e=5,  m=3,  d=7,  1=8,  u=d, 
r=10,  o=ll,  omitting  to  count  the  letters  which  are  repeated.  In 
the  middle  of  the  communication  the  page  may  be  varied,  and  con- 
sequently the  numerical  significance  of  each  letter  altered.  Even 
this  could  be  with  a  little  trouble;  and  the  word  ' impossible'  can 
hardly  be  said  to  apply  to  the  deciphering  of  cryptographs. 

"  A  curious  instance  of  this  occurred  at  the  close  of  the  sixteenth 
century,  when  the  Spaniards  were  endeavoring  to  establish   rela- 


328  MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS. 

tions  between  the  scattered  branches  of  their  vast  monarchy,  which 
at  that  period  embraced  a  large  portion  of  Italy,  the  Low  Countries, 
the  Philippines,  and  enormous  districts  in  the  New  World.  They 
accordingly  invented  a  cipher,  which  they  varied  from  time  to  time 
in  order  to  disconcert  those  who  might  attempt  to  pry  into  the 
mysteries  of  their  correspondence.  The  cipher,  composed  of  fifty 
signs,  was  of  great  value  to  them  through  all  the  troubles  of  the 
'  Ligue,'  and  the  wars  then  desolating  Europe.  Some  of  their  dis- 
patches having  been  intercepted,  Henry  IV.  handed  them  over  to 
a  clever  mathematician,  Viete,  with  the  request  that  he  would 
find  the  clue.  He  did  so,  and  was  able  also  to  follow  it  as  it  varied, 
and  France  profited  for  two  years  by  his  discovery.  The  court  of 
Spain,  disconcerted  at  this,  accused  Viete  before  the  Roman  court 
as  a  sorcerer  and  in  league  with  the  devil.  This  proceeding  only 
gave  rise  to  laughter  and  ridicule." 

[This  seems  to  have  been  a  cipher  in  which  each  letter  of 
the  alphabet  was  represented  by  either  of  two  characters. 
If  it  had  been  used  with  an  arrangement  similar  in  effect 
to  the  cipher-disk,  each  letter  could  be  thus  represented  in 
one  hundred  different  ways.  (See  page  305.)  It  would 
appear  from  the  text  that  it  was  not  so  arranged  as  to  be 
varied  as  frequently  as  it  ought  to  have  been.] 

"  A  still  more  remarkable  instance  is  that  of  a  German  professor, 
Hermann,  who  boasted,  in  1752,  that  he  had  discovered  a  crypto- 
graph absolutely  incapable  of  being  deciphered  without  the  clue 
being  given  by  him  ;  and  he  defied  all  the  savans  and  learned  soci- 
eties of  Europe  to  discover  the  key.  However,  a  French  refugee, 
named  Beguelin,  managed,  after  eight  days'  study,  to  read  it.  This 
cipher — though  we  have  the  rules  upon  which  it  is  formed  before 
us — is  to  us  perfectly  unintelligible.  It  is  grounded  on  some 
changes  of  numbers  and  symbols;  numbers  vary,  being  at  one  time 
multiplied,  at  another  added,  and  becoming  so  complicated  that  the 
letter  e,  which  occurs  nine  times  in  the  paragraph,  is  represented 
eight  different  ways ;  n  is  used  eight  times  and  has  seven  various 
signs.  Indeed,  the  same  letter  is  scarcely  ever  represented  by  the 
same  figure.  But  this  is  not  all ;  the  character  which  appears  in  the 
place  of  i  takes  that  of  n  shortly  after;  another  symbol  for  n  stands 
also  for  t.  How  any  man  could  have  solved  the  mystery  of  this 
cipher  is  astonishing." 


MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS.  329 

[An  effect  as  curious  as  that  here  described  is  illustrated 
at  page  302.  And  the  cipher  can  be  easily  written  with 
the  aid  of  the  disk.  It  may  be  more  complicated  by  in- 
creasing the  number  of  characters  and  adjustments.  If,  in 
addition  to  this,  the  ends  of  words,  sentences,  etc.,  are 
concealed,  it  will  add  incalculably  to  the  difficulty  of  the 
deciphering.] 

"  Now  let  us  recommend  a  for  simpler  system,  and  one  which  is 
very  difficult  of  detection.  It  consists  of  a  combination  of  numbers 
and  letters.  Both  parties  must  be  agreed  on  an  arrangement  such 
as  that  in  the  second  line  on  the  following  page,  for  on  it  all 
depends. 

123456789    10 

47291    10   536     8 

"  Now  in  turning  a  sentence,  such  as  '  The  army  must  retire,'  into 
cipher,  you  count  the  letters  which  make  the  sentence  and  find  that 
T  is  the  first,  H  the  second,  e  the  third,  a  the  fourth,  it  the  fifth,  and 
so  on.  Then  look  at  the  table,  t  is  the  first  letter ;  4  answers  to  1 ; 
therefore  write  the  fourth  letter  in  the  place  of  t— that  is,  A  instead 
of  t.  For  h,  the  second,  put  the  seventh,  which  is  y  ;  for  e  take  the 
second,  li.  The  sentence  will  stand,  '  Ayh  utsr  emmay  yhutsr.'  It 
is  all  but  impossible  to  discover  this  cipher. 

"  All  these  cryptographs  consist  in  the  exchange  of  numbers  or 
characters  for  the  real  letters ;  but  there  are  other  methods  quite  as 
intricate  which  dispense  with  them. 

"  The  mysterious  cards  of  the  Count  de  Vergennes  are  an  in- 
stance. De  Vergennes  was  Minister  of  Foreign  Affairs  under  Louis 
XVI.,  and  he  made  use  of  cards  of  a  peculiar  nature  in  his  relations 
with  the  diplomatic  agents  of  France.  These  cards  were  used  in 
letters  of  recommendation  on  passports  which  were  given  to 
straugers  about  to  enter  France  ;  they  were  intended  to  furnish  in- 
formation without  the  knowledge  of  the  bearers.  This  was  the 
system.  The  card  given  to  a  man  contained  only  a  few  words, 
such  as : 

4  ALPHOXSE  D'ANGEHA. 
'  Recommande  &  Monsieur 
'  le  Comte  de  Vergennes,  par  le  Marquis  de  Puysegur, 
'  Ambassadeur  de  France  a  la  Cour  de  Lisbonne.' 


330  MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS. 

"  The  card  told  more  tales  than  the  words  written  on  it.  Its  color 
indicated  the  nation  of  the  stranger.  Yellow  showed  him  to  be 
English  ;  red,  Spanish  ;  white,  Portuguese  ;  green,  Dutch  ;  red  and 
white,  Italian  ;  red  and  green,  Swiss  ;  green  and  white,  Russian,  etc. 
The  person's  age  was  expressed  by  the  shape  of  the  card.  If  it 
were  circular,  he  was  under  twenty-five ;  oval,  between  twenty-five 
and  thirty;  octagonal,  between  thirty  and  forty-five;  hexagonal 
between  forty-five  .and  fifty ;  square,  between  fifty  and  sixty ;  an 
oblong  showed  that  he  was  over  sixty.  Two  lines  placed  below  the 
name  of  the  bearer  indicated  his  build.  If  he  was  tall  and  lean,  the 
lines  were  waving  and  parallel ;  tall  and  stout,  they  converged,  and 
so  on.  The  expression  of  his  face  was  shown  by  a  flower  in  the 
border.  A  rose  designated  an  open  and  amiable  countenance,  while 
a  tulip  marked  a  pensive  and  aristocratic  appearance.  A  fillet  round 
the  border,  according  to  its  length,  told  whether  the  man  were 
bachelor,  married,  or  a  widower.  Dots  gave  information  as  to  his 
position  and  fortune.  A  full-stop  after  his  name  showed  that  he 
was  a  Catholic ;  a  semicolon,  that  he  was  a  Lutheran ;  a  comma, 
that  he  was  a  Calvinist;  a  dash,  that  he  was  a  Jew;  no  stop,  in- 
dicated him  as  an  Atheist.  So,  also,  his  morals  and  character  were 
pointed  out  by  a  pattern  in  the  angles  of  the  card,  such  as  one  of 
these : 


So,  at  one  glance,  the  minister  could  tell  all  about  his  man,  whether 
he  was  a  gamester,  or  a  duellist ;  what  was  his  purpose  in  visiting 
France — whether  in  search  of  a  wife,  or  to  claim  a  legacy ;  what 
was  his  profession — that  of  physician,  lawyer,  or  man  of  letters ; 
whether  he  were  to  be  put  under  surveillance  or  allowed  to  go  his 
way  unmolested. 

"  We  come  now  to  a  class  of  cipher  which  requires  a  certain 
amount  of  literary  dexterity  to  conceal  the  clue. 

"  During  the  Great  Rebellion,  Sir  John  Trevanion,  a  distinguished 
cavalier,  wras  made  prisoner,  and  locked  up  in  Colchester  Castle. 
Sir  Charles  Lucas  and  Sir  George  Lisle  had  just  been  made  exam- 
ples of  as  a  warning  to  '  malignants,'  and  Trevanion  had  every 
reason  for  expecting  a  similar  bloody  end.  As  he  awaits  his  doom, 
indulging  in  a  hearty  curse,  in  round  cavalier  terms,  at  the  canting, 
crop-eared  scoundrels  who  held  him  in  durance  vile,  and  muttering 


MANUAL  OF  SIGNALS.  331 

a  wish  that  he  had  fallen,  sword  in  hand,  facing  the  foe,  he  is  startled 
by  the  entrance  of  the  jailer,  who  hands  him  a  letter. 

"'May't  do  thee  good,'  growls  the  fellow;  'it  has  been  well 
looked  to  before  it  was  permitted  to  come  to  thee.' 

"  Sir  John  takes  the  letter,  and  the  jailer  leaves  him  his  lamp  by 
which  to  read  it : 

"'  "Wortiiie  Sir  Jorrx, — Hope,  that  is  ye  best  comfort  of  y° 
afBictyd,  cannot  much,  I  fear  me,  help  you  now.  That  I  wolde  save 
to  you,  is  this  only :  if  ever  I  may  be  able  to  requite  that  I  do  owe 
you,  stand  not  upon  asking  of  me.  'Tis  not  much  I  can  do;  but 
what  I  can  do,  bee  you  verie  sure  I  wille.  I  knowe  that,  if  dethe 
comes,  if  ordinary  men  fear  it,  it  frights  not  you,  accounting  it  for 
a  high  honor,  to  have  such  a  rewarde  of  your  loyalty.  Pray  yet 
that  you  may  be  spared  this  soe  bitter,  cup.  I  fear  not  that  you 
will  grudge  any  sufferings  ;  only  if  bie  submission  you  can  turn  them 
away,  'tis  the  part  of  a  wise  man.  Tell  me,  an  if  you  can,  to  do  for 
you  any  thinge  that  you  wolde  have  done.  The  general  goes  back 
on  Wednesday.    Restinge  your  servant  to  command,  R.  T.' 

"  Now  this  letter  was  written  according  to  a  preconcerted  cipher. 
Every  third  letter  after  a  stop  was  to  tell.  In  this  way.  Sir  John 
made  out — '  Panel  at  east  end  of  chapel  slides.'  On  the  following 
even,  the  prisoner  begged  to  be  allowed  to  pass  an  hour  of  private 
devotion  in  the  chapel.  By  means  of  a  bribe,  this  was  accom- 
plished. Before  the  hour  had  expired  the  chapel  was  empty — the 
bird  had  flown. 

"  An  excellent  plan  of  indicating  the  telling  letter  of  a  word  is 
through  the  heading  of  the  letter.  '  Sir,'  would  signify  that  every 
third  letter  was  to  betaken;  'Dear  Sir,'  that  every  seventh;  'My 
dear  Sir,'  that  every  ninth  was  to  be  selected.  A  system,  very  early 
adopted,  was  that  of  having  pierced  cards,  through  the  holes  of 
which  the  communication  was  written.  The  card  was  then  re- 
moved and  the  blank  spaces  filled  up.    As  for  example  : 


it  i 


My  Dear  X. — [The]  lines  I  now  send  you  are  forwarded  by 
the  kindness  of  the  [bearer],  who  is  a  friend.  [Is  not]  the  message 
delivered  yet  [to]  my  brother  ?  [Be]  quick  about  it,  for  I  have  all 
along  [trusted]  that  you  would  act  with  discretion  and  dispatch. 

"  '  Yours  ever,  Z.' 

"  Put  your  card  over  the  note,  and  through  the  piercings  you  will 
read  :  '  The  bearer  is  not  to  be  trusted.' 


332  MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS. 

"  The  following  letter  will  give  two  totally  distinct  meanings, 
according  as  it  is  read,  straight  through  or  by  only  alternate  lines : 

'  Mademoiselle — 

'  Je  m'ernpresse  de  vous  ecrire  pour  vous  declarer 
que  vous  vous  trornpez  beaucoup  si  vous  croyez 
que  vous  etes  celle  pour  qui  je  soupire. 
II  est  bien  vrai  que  pour  vous  eprouver, 
Je  vous  ai  fait  mille  aveux.  Apres  quoi 
vous  etes  devenue  l'objet  de  ma  raillerie.  Ainsi 
ne  doutez  plus  de  ce  que  vous  dit  ici  celui 
qui  n'a  'eu  que  de  l'aversion  pour  vous,  et 
qui  aimerait  mieux  mourir  qui  de 
se  voir  oblige  de  vous  epouser,  et  de 
changer  le  dessein  qu'il  a  forme  de  vous 
nai'r  toute  sa  vie,  bien  loin  de  vous 
aimer,  comme  il  vous  l'a  declare.  Soyez  done 
desabusee,  croyez-moi ;  et  si  vous  etes  encore 
constante  et  persuadee  que  vous  Stes  aimee 
vous  serez  encore  plus  exposee  a  la  risee 
de  tout  le  monde,  et  particuliereinent  de 
celui    qui    n'a  jamais    ete    et    ne    sera  jamais 

'  Votre  ser'ture, 

1 M.  K' 

"  "We  must  not  omit  to  mention  Chronograms.  These  are  verses 
which  contain  within  them  the  date  of  the.  composition.  So  at 
Graz,  on  the  mausoleum  of  the  Emperor  Ferdinand,  is  the  fol- 
lowing : 

'  ferDInanDVs  seCVnDVs  le  VIXit  pie  obllt,' 

that  is,  1637. 

"  A  very  curious  one  was  written  by  Charles  de  Bovelle :  we 
adapt  and  explain  it : 

The  heads  of  a  mouse  and  five  cats M.CCCCC 

Add  also  the  tail  of  a  bull ,.  L 

Item,  the  four  legs  of  a  rat MI 

And  you  have  my  date  in  full M.CCCCCLIIII 

(1554.) 

"  It  is  now  high  time  that  we  show  the  readers  how  to  find  the 
clue  to  a  cipher.     And  as  illustration  is  always  better  than  precept, 


MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS.  •        333 

wc  shall  exemplify  from  our  own  experience.  With  permission, 
too,  wc  shall  drop  the  plural  for  the  singular. 

"  Will !  My  friend  Matthew  Fletcher  came  into  a  property  some 
years  ago,  bequeathed  to  him  by  a  great-uncle.  The  old  gentleman 
had  been  notorious  for  his  parsimonious  habits,  and  he  was  known 
through  the  country  by  the  nickname  of  Miser  Tom.  Of  course 
every  one  believed  that  he  was  vastly  rich,  and  that  Mat.  Fletcher 
would  come  in  for  a  mint  of  money.  But,  somehow,  my  friend  did 
not  find  the  stores  of  coin  on  which  he  had  calculated  hidden  in 
worsted  stockings  or  cracked  pots,  and  the  savings  of  the  old  man 
which  he  did  light  upon  consisted  of  but  trifling  sums.  Fletcher 
became  firmly  persuaded  that  the  money  was  hidden  somewhere; 
where  he  could  not  tell,  and  he  often  came  to  consult  me  on  the 
best  expedient  for  discovering  it.  It  is  all  through  my  intervention 
that  he  did  not  pull  down  the  whole  house  about  his  ears,  tear  up 
every  floor,  and  root  up  every  flower  or  tree  throughout  the  garden 
in  his  search  after  the  precious  hoard.  One  day  he  burst  into  my 
room  with  radiant  face. 

" '  My  dear  fellow  !'  he  gasped  forth, '  I  have  found  it.' 

"  '  Found  what  ? — the  treasure  ?' 

"  '  All  but — I  want  your  help  now,'  and  he  flung  a  discolored  slip 
of  paper  upon  my  table. 

"I  took  it  up,  and  saw  that  it  was  covered  with  writing  in 
cipher. 

" '  I  routed  it  out  of  a  secret  drawer  in  Uncle  Tom's  bureau !'  he 
explained ;  '  I  have  no  doubt  of  its  purport.  It  indicates  the  spot 
where  all  his  savings  are  secreted.' 

" '  You  have  not  deciphered  it  yet,  have  you?' 

"  '  ]STo.  I  want  your  help  ;  I  can  make  neither  heads  nor  tails  of 
the  scrawl,  though  I  sat  up  all  night  studying  it.' 

"  '  Come  along,'  said  I, '  I  wish  you  joy  of  your  treasure.  I'll  read 
the  cipher  if  you  give  me  time.'  So  we  sat  down  together  at  my 
desk  with  the  slip  of  paper  before  us.    Here  is  the  inscription : 

D  A 


+  ^282§9/?902^879  +  )789(9(88f  7-r)8— 2§  +  9  x  §2g — 29§— )*S228x- 

7*e82A*9x79  + 

B 


X§_7—  P*yX9— T0— x8)*48||§8— =8x2§8x82§— +§8x80§8x82§828x 
70>(2§8  +  8x*==AlT90||A7=—  +  -. — x8SlAx*92—  +  -2. 


331  MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS. 

" '  Now,'  said  I,  '  the  order  of  precedence  among  the  letters, 
according  to  the  frequency  of  their  occurrence,  is  this :  e  a  o  i  t  d 
hnrsuycfglm  w  b  k  p  q  x  z.  This,  however,  is  their  order 
according  to  the  number  of  words  begun  by  each  respectively  :  s  c 
padifblbt,  etc.     The  most  frequent  compounds  are  th,  ng,  ee, 

11,  mm,  tt,  dd,  nn." 

[The  following  letters  occur  in  about  the  following  nu- 
merical proportion  :  For  every  two  of  the  letter  q  there 
are  four  of  the  letter  x,  eight  of  k,  sixteen  of  b,  thirty  of  c, 
eighty  each  of  i,  n,  o,  and  s,  eighty-five  of  a,  ninety  of  t, 
and  one  hundred  and  twenty  of  the  letter  e.] 

"  '  Pray,  Matthew,  do  you  see  any  one  sign  repeated  oftener  than 
the  others  in  this  cryptograph?' 

"  '  Yes,  8  ;  it  is  repeated  twenty-three  times,'  said  Fletcher,  after  a 
pause. 

"  '  Then  you  may  be  perfectly  satisfied  that  it  stands  for  e,  which 
is  used  far  oftener  than  any  other  letter  in  English.  Next,  look 
along  the  lines  and  see  what  letters  most  frequently  accompany  it.' 

"  '  2  §  undoubtedly  ;  it  follows  8  in  several  places  and  precedes  it 
in  others.  In  the  second  line  we  have  2  §  8 — 8  2  § — 2  §  8  ;  and  in 
the  third,  2  §  8  again.' 

"  '  Then  we  may  fairly  assume  that  2  §  8  stands  for  the? 

" '  The,  to  be  sure,'  burst  forth  Fletcher.  '  Now  the  next  word 
will  be  money.  No  !  it  can't  be,  the  e  will  not  suit ;  perhaps  it  is 
treasure,  gold,  hoard,  store.' 

'"Wait  a  little  bit,'  I  interposed.  'Now  look  what  letters  are 
doubled.' 

" '  88  and  22,'  said  my  friend  Mat. 

"'And  please  observe,'  I  continued,  'that  where  I  draw  a  line 
and  write  A  you  have  e,  then  double  t,  then  e  again.  Probably  this 
is  the  middle  of  a  word,  and  as  we  have  already  supposed  2  to  stand 
for  t,  we  have  — ette — ,  a  very  likely  combination.  We  may  be  sure 
of  the  t  now.  Near  the  end  of  the  second  line  there  is  a  remarkable 
passage,  in  which  the  three  letters  we  know  recur  continually.  Let 
us  write  it  out,  leaving  blanks  for  the  letters  we  do  not  know,  and 
placing  the  ascertained  letters  instead  of  their  symbols.  Then  it 
stands — e^the^eth — he^  she^ethe — .  Now,  here  I  have  a  x  repeated 
four  times,  and  from  its  position  it  must  be  a  consonant.    I  will  put 


MANUAL   OF    SIGNALS.  335 

in  its  place  one  consonant  after  another.  You  see  r  is  the  only  one 
which  turns  the  Inters  into  words  — erthe  r  th  here,  here  the.  Surely 
some  of  these  should  stand  out  distinctly  separated — er  there  th — here 
.  here  the.  Look!  1  can  see  at,  once  what  letters  are  wanting;  th — 
between  there  and  here  must  he  than,  and  then  .  here  is — must  he 
— where.    So  uow  1  have  found  these  letters, 

8=c,  i— t,  §=h,  x=r,  — =a,  +=n,  ©=w, 

and  I  can  confirm  the  %  ns  r  by  taking  the  portion  marked  A — ctt<  r. 
Here  we  get  an  end  of  an  adjective  in  the  comparative  degree;  I 
think  it  must  be  better. 

"'Let  us  next  take  a  group  of  ciphers  higher  up;  I  will  pencil 
over  it  D.  I  take  this  group  because  it  contains  some  of  the  letters 
winch  we  have  settled — eathn.  Eath  must  be  the  end  of  a  word, 
for  none  begin  with  athn,  thn,  or  hn.  Now  what  letter  will  suit 
eath?    Probably  h,  probably  <f.' 

" '  Yes,'  exclaimed  Fletcher,  '  Death,  to  be  sure.  I  can  guess  it 
all :  Death  is  approaching,  and  I  feel  that  a  solemn  duty  devolves 
upon  me,  that  of  acquainting  Matthew  Fletcher,  nvy  heir,  with  the 
spot  where  I  have  hidden  my  savings.     Go  on,  go  on.' 

" '  All  iu  good  time,  my  friend,'  I  laughed.  '  You  observe  we  can 
coufirm  our  guess  as  to  the  sign  )  being  used  for  d,  by  comparing 
the  passage — 29§ — )*228X,  which  we  now  read,  t.  had  better.  But 
t.  Jtad  better  is  awkward  ;  you  cannot  make  9  into  o  ;  'to  had,'  wrould 
be  no  sense.' 

" '  Of  course  not,'  burst  forth  Fletcher.  '  Don't  you  see  it  all  ? 
I  had  better  let  my  excellent  nephew  know  where  I  have  depos- 
ited—' 

" '  Wait  a  bit,'  interrupted  I ;  '  you  are  right  I  believe.  I  is  the 
signification  of  9.  Let  us  begin  the  whole  cryptograph  now; 
NtetM.i.t.re.ind.e? 

" '  Remind  me  P  cried  Fletcher. 

" '  You  have  it  again,'  said  I.  '  Now  we  obtain  an  additional  let- 
ter beside  m,  for  t.  remind  me  is  certainly  to  remind  me.  We  must 
begin  again :  Note  thi.  i.  to  remind  me? 

"'  This  i*,'  called  out  my  excited  friend,  wdiose  eyes  were  spark- 
ling with  delight  and  expectation. 

" '  Go  on ;  you  are  a  trump  !' 

"'These,  then,  are  our  additional  letters:  )=d,  7=m,  /3=s,  9— i, 
X=o.      To  remind  me  i.i.ee.m.death,  m.  h.  for  m.  death,  I  read  my 


336  MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS. 

death,  and  i.  i.  ee,  I  guess  to  be,  if  I  feel.  So  it  stands  thus:  '  Note — 
This  is  to  remind  me,  if  I  feel  my  death  nigh,  that  I  had  better — ' 

"  I  worked  on  now  in  silence  ;  Fletcher,  leaning  his  chin  on  his 
hand,  sat  opposite,  staring  into  my  face  with  breathless  anxiety. 
Presently  I  exclaimed — 

" '  Halves,  Mat !    I  think  you  said  halves  !' 

" '  I— I— I— I— my  dear  fellow,  I—' 

" '  A  very  excellent  man  was  your  uncle ;  a  most  exemplary — ' 

" '  All  right,  I  know  that,'  said  Fletcher,  cutting  me  short.  '  Do 
read  the  paper ;  I  have  a  spade  and  pick  on  my  library-table  all 
ready  for  work  the  moment  I  know  where  to  begin.' 

" '  But,  really,  he  was  a  man  in  a  thousand,  a  man  of  such  discre- 
tion, such  foresight,  so  much — ' 

"  Down  came  Fletcher's  hand  on  the  desk. 

" '  Do  go  on  !'  he  cried ;  and  I  could  see  that  he  was  swearing  in- 
ternally ;  he  would  have  sworn  ore  rotundo,  only  that  it  would  have 
been  uncivil  and  decidedly  improper. 

« <  Yeiy  well ;  you  are  prepared  to  hear  all  ?' 

" '  All !  by  Jove  !  by  jingo !  prepared  for  everything.' 

" '  This  is  what  I  read,'  said  I,  taking  up  my  own  transcript : 

" '  Note. — This  is  to  remind  me,  if  I  feel  my  death  nigh,  that  1 
had  better  move  to  Birmingham,  as  burials  are  done  cheaper  there 
than  here,  where  the  terms  of  the  Necropolis  Company  are  exhor- 
bitant? 

"  Fletcher  bounded  from  his  seat.  '  The  old  skinflint !  miser ! 
screw !' 

"  '  A  very  estimable  and  thrifty  man,  your  great-uncle.' 

" '  Confounded  old  stingy  ,'  and  he  slammed  the  door  upon 

himself  and  the  substantive  which  designated  his  uncle. 

"  And  now  the  veiy  best  advice  we  can  give  to  our  readers  is  to 
set  to  work  at  once  on  the  simple  cipher  given  near  the  commence- 
ment of  this  paper,  and  to  find  it  out." 


FLYING  OR  FIELD  TELEGRAPHS. 

The  duties  of  the  Signal  Corps,  organized  during  the  war 
of  the  Rebellion,  extended  to  the  management  of  field  tele- 
graphs, and  light  lines  when  the  formation  of  the  country 


MANUAL   OF    SIGNALS.  337 

was  such  that  aerial  signals  could  not  be  used,  or  it  was 
for  any  reason  desirable  that  short  electric  lines  be  ex- 
tended. 

It  is  a  duty  of  signal-officers  to  make  themselves  and  their 
parties  acquainted  with  all  the  modes  of  telegraphic  com- 
munication. The  transmission  of  signals  by  electricity,  and 
the  transmission  of  visual  signals,  are  to  them  equally  the 
subjects  of  study,  and  they  should  be  prepared  to  judge 
where  either  is  practicable  or  preferable. 

As  the  army  occupies  a  new  country,  they  should  be 
able,  by  reconnoissance  and  the  study  of  maps,  to  de- 
termine where  electric  lines  ought  to  run,  and  where 
should  be  the  stations  for  aerial  telegraphs.  They  should 
know  how  to  prepare  and  to  command  the  proper  de- 
tails for  the  construction  of  temporary  lines,  and  to 
guard,  inspect,  and  repair  them.  They  should  be  able 
to  assign  these  details  with  instructions  so  clear  as  to 
insure  the  proper  performance  of  the  duties.  They  should 
understand  how  to  dispose  troops  for  the  protection  of  sta- 
tions, and  be  familiar  with  the  precautions  necessary  to 
prevent  surprise. 

Signals  can  be  transmitted  bv  the  signs  or  sounds  caused 
by  electricity,  following  the  plans  of  any  of  the  signal  codes 
heretofore  illustrated. 

Officers  and  men  thoroughly  practised  in  the  codes  of 
aerial  signals  will  find  little  difficulty  in  applying  their 
knowledge  to  transmitting  or  receiving  signals  by  electric 
wires  in  codes  of  whatever  numbers  of  elements. 

Electric  instruments  may  be  of  the  most  simple  construc- 
tion. Electric  lines  can  be  set  up,  and  be  very  useful  in 
hundreds  of  places  where  they  are  now,  if  thought  of, 
deemed  impracticable;  and  they  can  be  worked  without 
other  skilled  labor  than  that  of  the  soldiers  attached  to  the 
posts,  and  with  no  apparatus  but  such  as  can  be  had  at  a 
trivial  expense. 

15 


338  MANUAL    OF    SIGNALS. 

There  is  no  reason  why,  with  properly  drilled  parties, 
electric  lines  may  not  be  thrown  out  in  the  moments  which 
precede  or  even  during  the  progress  of  a  battle,  and  be  so 
worked  as  to  lessen  infinitely  that  difficulty  of  rapid  com- 
munication, which  has  so  often  caused  disaster. 

Portable  lines,  and  parties  drilled  to  serve  with  them, 
should  accompany  an  army,  as  does  its  artillery,  to  be  used 
successfully  for  one  day  or  one  battle  only,  if  that  case  needs 
be,  provided  they  may,  by  successful  use  on  that  day  or  at 
that  battle,  contribute  to  a  victory. 

With  a  corps  well  organized  and  well  equipped,  the  con- 
nection between  the  corps  of  an  army  and  between  the 
corps-headquarters  and  general  headquarters,  ought  to  be 
perfected  in  a  very  few  hours  after  the  halt  of  the  army. 

It  was  claimed  for  the  Signal  Corps  during  the  Avar,  that 
it,  at  the  battle  of  Fredericksburg,  brought  into  operation, 
for  the  first  time  in  the  service  of  the  United  States,  a 
telegraphic  station  working  upon  the  field  of  actual  battle, 
and  exposed  to  the  same  fire  as  the  general  and  his  staff. 

Electric  lines  and  stations  ought,  if  properly  served,  be 
often  thus  established  and  held  under  fire,  and  with  circum- 
stances of  great  hardship  and  danger. 

Officers  and  men  who  share  the  danger  of  other  soldiers 
ought  to  have  the  same  incentives,  the  protection,  and  the 
usefulness  secured  to  them  by  military  position  and  dis- 
cipline. 

The  Field  Lines  of  the  Signal  Corps  consist  of  rolls 
of  wire  carried  in  li^ht-wheeled  vehicles,  and  lisrht  "  lance 
poles"  as  they  were  called,  on  which  the  wire  is  stretched 
when  necessary.  The  wire,  made  for  the  purpose,  is  of 
small  strands  of  iron  and  copper  twisted,  to  give  it  strength 
and  flexibility.  It  is  insulated  with  prepared  india-rubber, 
or  other  material,  and  wound  on  reels,  which,  in  an  emer- 
gency, can  be  earned  anywhere  by  hand,  while  the  wire 
reeling  out  can  be  raised  upon  fences,  fastened  to  trees,  or 


PLATE  XXVni. 


Fig.l. 


The  SionaJ  Corps  Telegraph  -Setting up  ihe  wire. 


Fig.  2. 


- 


Pio.  3. 


The  Signal  Telegraph -The  Operator  ;it  Work 


Signal  Station  atNiehl 


MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS.  .  339 

laid  along  the  ground.  (Plate  XXVIII,  Fig.  I.)  The  in- 
struments used  at  first  were  of  a  kind  known  as  the  Beards- 
lee  Instrument. 

These  instruments  are  worked  without  batteries,  the  elec- 
tric current  being  generated  by  revolving  magnets.  They 
were  "indicating,"  an  index  upon  a  dial  pointing,  at  the 
receiving  station,  to  whatever  letter  was  designated  by  the 
index  handle  upon  a  similar  dial  at  the  sending  station.  ' 
(Plate  XXVIII,  Fig.  2.) 

There  were  as  advantages  attaching  to  this  instrument, 
that  it  was  portable  and  compact,  could  be  set  at  work 
anywhere,  required.no  batteries,  acids,  or  fluids;  and,  what 
was  thought  of  importance  in  the  early  days  of  the  late  Avar, 
and  while  the  corps  was  a  temporary  organization,  it  could 
be  worked  by  soldiers  without  skill  as  operators.  The  de- 
fects were,  that  messages  could  not  be  sent  as  rapidly  or  as 
far  as  by  some  other  instruments.  Nor  could  several  in- 
struments work  easily  upon  a  single  circuit.  For  some  uses 
on  the  field  of  battle,  or  under  fire,  where  the  attention  of 
the  reader  is  disturbed,  it  is,  perhaps,  as  good  an  instru- 
ment as  has  been  devised.  With  a  permanent  corps,  or  at 
secure  stations;  it  gives  place  to  some  of  the  forms  of  signal 
or  of  sound  instruments. 

The  instruments  upon  field-lines  may  be  of  very  simple 
structure.  The  signal  instruments,  either  the  needle  or  the 
letter  instruments,  can  be  used  in  actual  conflict,  if  the  re- 
ports of  heavy  guns  or  other  disturbances  of  action  render 
reading  by  sound  unreliable.  The  manufacture  of  both 
instruments  and  batteries  has  been  improved,  until  there 
is  now  no  trouble  in  carrying  either  in  the  field  in  the 
roughest  campaigns. 

The  difficulty  in  reading  from  telegraphic  instruments  by 
s.mnd,  winch  has  been  the  greatest  obstacle  to  their  use, 
can  be  almost  done  away  with  by  using  them  with  codes 
of  easy  signals. 


340  MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS. 

Almost  any  one  who  can  commit  to  memory  a  code  of 
signals  can,  with  a  few  days'  practice,  read  from  a  tele- 
graphic instrument,  if  it  makes  two  or  three  distinct  sounds 
only ;  and  these  alone  are  used  to  form  the  alphabet.  A 
good  signalist  can  read  slowly  without  any  prior  practice, 
if  he  causes  to  be  sounded  by  the  instruments  any  code  to 
which  he  is  accustomed.  The  sound-alphabet  in  general 
use  among  telegraphers  is  greatly  and  unnecessarily  com- 
plicated. 

Standard  works  on  Electric  Telegraphy  so  fully  describe 
the  different  styles  of  apparatus  already  in  use,  that  no 
especial  description  need  here  be  given. 

Every  command  can  have  within  itself  the  men  and 
material  for  establishing  its  own  stations.  There  is  no  diffi- 
cult art  to  be  acquired.  Instruments  which  can  be  carried 
in  the  pocket,  with  batteries  easily  transportable  in  a  knap- 
sack, are  sufficient  for  short  lines.  A  pack-animal  Avith 
panniers  can  carry,  anyAvhere  that  troops  will  march,  mate- 
rial and  supplies  for  more  extended  operations. 

Plate  XXIX.  is  intended  to  exemplify  the  manner  in 
which  the  Field  Lines  of  the  Signal  Corps  can  be  used  to 
perfect  the  service  of  the  corps,  and  to  illustrate  circum- 
stances which  often  occur,  and  in  which  their  use  is  abso- 
lutely necessary  to  make  the  corps  service  efficient.  The 
electric  stations  at  A  and  B  enable  reports  of  observation 
to  be  taken  immediately  to  headquarters  at  camp  from  the 
points  C,  and  D,  and  E,  and  F,  which  are  otherwise  shut  off 
by  the  forest.  And  these  stations  can  be  established  and 
worked  for  less  than  the  cost  of  the  horse  required  to  mount 
a  single  courier  to  i*ide  from  them. 

,  Plate  XXX  illustrates  the  communications  between  the 
land  and  naval  forces  at  the  commencement  of  operations 
against  Mobile,  and  given  after  Admiral  Farragut  had  passed 
the  forts  with  the  fleet. 

For  a  line  to  use  a  vibrating  needle,  there  is  needed  only 


I 


V 


J 


1 


MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS.  341 

a  magnet  and  a  wire.  The  apparatus  for  working  by  sound 
is  not  complicated. 

Field  Telegraph  Trains  ought  to  be  always  furnished  with 
wire  of  two  kinds:  insulated  for  sadden  emergencies,  when 
the  line  must  he  thrown  out  without  delay,  and  may  lie 
upon  the  ground,  or  may  run  through  streams ;  and  a  light 
copper  or  other  wire,  to  be  used  with  more  permanent  lines. 

Lines  put  up  for  temporary  use  with  insulated  wire  should 
be  relieved,  if  likely  to  be  permanent,  with  other  wire.  The 
insulating  material  becomes  frayed  by  friction  on  trees  or 
poles.  The  insulated  wire  removed  should  be  carefully 
repaired,  tested,  reeled,  and  held  for  future  use.  A  twisted 
copper  wire  is,  perhaps,  as  flexible  and  as  useful  as  any  for 
service  in  which  the  same  wire  is  to  be  often  used  at  differ- 
ent places.  A  supply  of  insulators  of  such  size,  that  a  large 
number  of  them  may  be  carried  in  a  pouch  or  haversack, 
and  made  to  be  screwed  or  driven  into  trees,  posts,  etc., 
should  be  carried.  Temporary  insulators  have  been  made 
with  bottle  necks.  Wire,  both  plain  and  insulated,  must 
always  be  in  reserve,  so  that  in  the  moment  of  battle  reliance 
need  not  be  upon  damaged  material.  The  supply-trains 
must  carry  material  to  at  once  replace  a  damaged  or  dis- 
abled line.  Each  field-train  is  accompanied  by  men  prac- 
tised to  serve  with  it. 

A  supply-train  carries  extra  material. 

With  a  marching  army,  the  flying-trains  as  they  are 
called,  those  which  carry  lines  for  instant  service,  are  moved 
habitually  well  to  the  front  with  the  moving  columns,  pre- 
cedence being  given  them  as  to  the  artillery.  The  wagons 
are  light,  and  are  not  troublesome.  When  the  movements 
of  a  battle  commence  the  roads  are  thronged,  and  trains 
cannot  be  then  brought  quickly  forward. 

While  the  army  marches,  lines  are  thrown  out  to  par- 
ticular points,  and  such  only  as  are  designated  in  especial 
orders.       When    the    army    halts,  each    corps    detachment 


342  MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS. 

makes  its  connection  with  general  headquarters  as  quickly 
as  possible. 

When  the  army  remains  for  a  time  in  the  front  of  an 
enemy,  light  branch  lines  are  pushed  out  to  the  front,  to 
wherever  information  can  be  concentrated  for  headquarters, 
and  where  they  may  receive  the  reports  of  reconnoitring 
officers,  secret  stations  of  observation,  and  signal-stations 
established  still  nearer  the  enemy's  lines. 

In  the  co-operation  of  Land  and  Naval  Forces,  a  signal- 
station  established  upon  the  shore,  can  keep  communication 
with  the  fleet  while  light  lines  reach  the  army  hidden  from 
view  inland. 

At  sieges,  the  light  lines  go  to  the  front,  wherever  they 
are  needed.  They  can  follow  the  trenches  as  fast  as  they 
are  opened.  The  insulated  wire  ought  to  be  laid  on  the 
bottom  of  the  trench,  and  held  close  to  the  rear  slope  by 
wooden  pegs  driven  into  the  earth.  By  this  plan  the  wire 
is  protected  from  the  enemy's  fire,  and  is  not  in  the  way  of 
the  troops  in  the  trenches.  An  exposed  wire  is  often  cut  by 
the  fragments  of  shell,  and  sometimes  purposely  by  the 
enemy's  sharpshooters. 

On  the  eve  of  a  battle  the  chief  signal-officer  ought  to  be 
notified,  and  should  have  information  of  the  number  of 
miles  of  line  that  may  be  needed.  He  learns  from  the  chief 
of  staff  the  plans  of  the  lines  for  the  engagement,  as  nearly 
as  may  be.  The  probable  position  of  the  general-in-chief  is 
ascertained.  The  chief  signal-officers  of  corps  detachments 
are  then  instructed,  and  each  of  them  arranges  that  his 
field-lines  may  run  to  general  headquarters-station  as  soon 
as  the  corps  to  which  he  is  attached  takes  its  position.  The 
station  near  the  general-in-ehief  is  the  headquarters-station; 
the  stations  near  corps  commanders  are  field-stations. 

As  the  corps  take  their  positions,  the  chief  signal-officer 
sees  that  the  headquarters-station  and  the  field-stations  are 
established.     The  points  to  which  the  general  wishes  com- 


MANUAL  OF  SIGNALS.  3-43 

munication  are  reached  in  the  order  of  their  importance. 
The  flying  lines  must  be  carried  out  by  incessanl  Labor,  no 
matter  with  what  difficulties  or  what  fatigue.  There  should 
be  no  rest  until  the  lines  are  run  out,  the  patrols  placed 
upon  them,  and  communication  assured  by  messages  ex- 
changed between  the  generals.  A  line  working  in  time 
may  save  an  hour  of  delay  to  the  army.  History  is  crowded 
"with  examples  where  the  use  of  flying  lines  might  have  as- 
sured victory. 

The  light  electric  lines  ought  to  be  carried  always  well 
off  the  main  roads,  and  through  the  fields  or  woods,  to 
avoid  the  march  of  troops.  When  thrown  out  before  a 
battle,  they  should  be  run,  if  possible,  over  such  parts  of 
the  ground  as  will  not  be  traversed  by  artillery  or  cavalry. 
They  must  be  stretched  over  thoroughfares  on  high  poles 
or  lances.  It  is  advisable  to  carry  the  lines  from  head- 
quarters-station laterally,  and  well  to  the  rear  of  the  place 
of  actual  battle,  and  to  then  run  the  wires  toward  the  field- 
stations  in  that  direction  which  will  be  coincident  with  the 
line  of  march  of  the  troops,  instead  of  crossing  that  line. 
There  will  be  thus  less  danger  of  damage  from  the  necessary 
movements  of  the  army. 

A  detail  for  patrol  duty  must  be  made  before  the  action  ; 
and  patrols,  stationed  a  few  hundred  yards  apart,  will  keep 
every  part  of  the  wire  in  view  during  the  battle.  These 
patrols  should  be  instructed  how  to  splice  the  wire  if  it  is 
broken,  and  be  furnished  with  little  clamps  or  screws  to 
temporarily  join  it.  The  lines  are  to  be  assigned  by  sections 
of  length — as  of  half  a  mile  or  a  mile— and  a  sergeant  or 
artisan  of  the  Signal  Corps  ought  to  be  detailed  for  each 
section,  whose  duty  it  is  to  pass  continually  up  and  down 
his  section,  to  review  the  splices  made  by  the  patrols,  and 
to  see  that  the  line  is  kept  perfect  in  all  its  parts. 

The  men  should  lie  upon  the  ground  when  mending  wire 
under  fire. 


344  MANUAL  OF  SIGNALS. 

A  commissioned  officer  should  be  on  the  field  with  each 
corps  detachment,  and  in  charge  of  the  field-lines  of  that 
corps.  Two  sergeants  are  to  be  stationed  at  each  instru- 
ment. A  signal-flag  bearing  a  cross  must  be  kept  flying  at 
each  station,  as  a  guide  to  those  bringing  messages.  A 
number  of  mounted  couriers  should  be  assigned  for  each 
station.  All  the  appliances  for  work  must  be  carefully 
provided.  Spades,  pickaxes,  and  implements  must  be  at 
hand.  Lanterns  must  be  ready  for  night-work.  There 
must  be  a  proper  supply  of  blanks,  note-books,  etc.  A 
line  may  be  disabled  by  some  little  neglect  in  such  pro- 
vision. Field-stations  must  be  near  the  corps  commanders, 
or  where  they  can  easily  reach  them.  If  the  fire  is  heavy, 
the  stations  ought  to  be  located  in  ravines  or  in  some 
depression,  keeping  a  crest  higher  than  the  instruments 
between  the  station  and  the  enemy.  They  may  be  placed 
behind  cover  of  any  kind;  a  trench  may  be  made  for  this 
purpose. 

The  officer  in  charge  of  each  station  must  ascertain  where 
the  general  with  whom  he  serves,  or  some  one  to  represent 
him,  will  be  found  to  receive  messages;  and  generals  should 
provide  that  instructions  on  this  point  are  carefully  given, 
and  that  members  of  their  staffs  know  the  positions  of  the 
different  stations.  Much  valuable  time  is  sometimes  lost  in 
the  wandering  search  of  the  orderlies,  bearing  messages 
from  the  instruments,  for  those  for  whom  they  are  intended. 

Officers  sending  messages  before  or  during  an  action 
should  make  them  brief,  intelligible,  and  write  them  plainly. 
A  copy  of  each  message  sent  ought  to  be  kept  at  the  instru- 
ments. If  the  message  is  of  great  importance,  and  the  per- 
sons bearing  it  have  to  go  under  fire  to  reach  the  instru- 
ments, separate  copies  ought  to  be  sent  by  separate  mes- 
sengers. 

If  a  field-station  is  threatened  by  the  enemy,  the  officer 
in   charge   ought  to  be  personally  at  the  instrument,  and 


MANUAL  OF  SIGNALS.  345 

must  see  that  the  line  is  not  abandoned  until  it  is  absolutely 
necessary;  and  that  the  instrument  is  carried  oft'  by  the 
men  on  duty.  The  instrument  should  never  fall  into  the 
hands  of  the  enemy.  If  it  must  be  abandoned,  let  it  be  de- 
stroyed, and  with  it  all  messages  and  every  article  that 
could  in  any  way  aid  the  enemy. 

If  a  station  is  to  fall  bark,  and  there  is  time,  the  wire 
can  be  coiled  on  the  arms  of  the  men  after  the  manner  of  a 
rope  coil,  and  thus  be  saved.  The  officer  in  charge  should, 
on  reaching  a  place  of  safety,  at  once  procure  from  the 
reserve  supplies  new  wire,  lances,  etc. ;  and  be  ready,  watch- 
ing his  opportunity,  to  reoccupy  his  station  the  moment  the 
position  of  friendly  forces  renders  it  again  tenable. 

If  he  has  fallen  back  along  his  own  line  of  wire,  he  may 
open  communication  with  headquarters-station  from  a  posi- 
tion more  to  the  rear.  He  must  at  once  report  his  new 
position  to  the  corps  commander,  and  he  must  keep  his  flag 
displayed  there  as  a  guide  to  those  seeking  the  station. 

If  a  station  is  to  advance  with  the  advance  of  the  forces, 
the  officer  in  charge  must  see  in  time  that  he  has  wire  and 
material,  and  a  party  at  hand  to  keep  pace  with  the  move- 
ment. He  must  at  once  give  notice  of  his  new  position  as 
soon  as  he  has  opened  communication  with  general  head- 
quarters from  a  station  in  advance. 

Whenever  the  movements  of  the  army  permit  any  line  to 
be  abandoned,  it  must  be  immediately  reeled,  repacked,  and 
reported  to  the  chief  signal-officer,  that  it  may  be  held  ready 
to  be  extended  in  any  other  location. 


There  have  been  here  given  outlines  of  such  instructions 
as  were  formed  for  the  signal-officers  serving;  with  field- 
lines  during  the  war.  They  have  reference  to  those  lines 
onh  which   ought  to  be  in    the   hands  of  corps  organized 


316  MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS. 

especially  for  service  in  the  field,  and  for  services  of  this 
nature. 

Where  lines  are  permanent  for  months,  as  behind  an 
army,  or  running  through  a  guarded  country,  the  service 
on  these,  as  on  civil  lines,  may  be  by  citizen  employes  of  the 
quarter-master's  department. 

When  signal  corps  are  organized,  they  ought,  wherever 
in  actual  service,  to  have  control  of  light  telegraphic 
lines,  to  be  eithei  worked  by  the  corps,  or,  if  for  any  rea- 
son, by  citizen  employes,  these  to  be  subject  to  the  orders 
of  the  chief  signal-oificer ;  and  the  officers  and  men  of 
the  corps  should  be  drilled  in  the  service  and  working 
of  their  lines  with  as  much  precision  and  regularity  as 
artillery  are  taught  at  their  guns.  The  Military  Board 
convened  in  1863,  to  report  the  organization  and  duties 
of  the  Signal  Corps,  approved  in  strong  terms  this  part  of 
the  equipment. 

The  officer  or  enlisted  man  who  can  skilfullv  read  sic- 
nals  addressed  to  the  eye,  will,  with  a  few  days'  practice, 
read  as  well  those  made,  whatever  may  be  their  style, 
with  telegraphic  instruments.  An  officer  charged  with 
the  duty  of  opening  communication  over  lines  by  aerial 
telegraph  signals  should  be  able  to  complete  such  lines 
through  woods,  or  where  obstacles  intervene,  by  electric 
signals,  to  be  transmitted,  as  are  the  aerial,  by  his  own 
men  and  under  his  direction.  Considerations  of  economy 
also  necessitate  this.  The  sergeants  and  privates  of  the 
signal  corps,  men  of  full  age,  many  of  them  good  scho- 
lars, and  each  selected  after  examination,  can  as  well 
attend  the  simpler  telegraphic  instruments  as  can  the 
young  clerks  now  employed  for  that  duty,  and  do  so  at 
a  rate  of  pay  amounting  to  about  one-third  the  sums 
now  demanded  by  inferior  operators.  An  intelligent 
sergeant  can  read  the  sounding  0f  the  Beardslee  in- 
strument  with  a  fortnight's  practice.     A  code  of  two  ele- 


MANUAL    OF   SIGNALS.  347 

ments  can  be  read  by  sound  from  :i  Morse  instrument  with 
a  month's  practice.  The  more  complicated  alphabet  now 
everywhere  used  on  that  instrument,  and  to  read  which  well 
requires  from  three  months  to  a  year  of  practice,  is  not  suit- 
able  for  a  soiu/d  alphabet,  was  never  intended  to  be  read  by 
the  ear,  and  is  continued  in  use  because  the  first  operators 
learned  to  read  by  it,  and  those  of  a  later  day  have  followed 
their  practice  without  inquiry.  It  was  devised  as  an  alpha- 
bet for  record  or  writing.  In  time  of  peace,  this  duty  of 
telegraphing  might  remain  to  the  corps  in  so  far  that  the 
chief  signal-officer  at  any  post  might  have  supervision  of  the 
terminus  of  the  main  electric  line  there;  and  when  an  expe- 
dition moved  into  the  field,  the  signal-officer  should  be  ex- 
pected to  provide  all  arrangements  for  its  telegraphing,  and 
be  responsible  for  the  execution  of  that  duty. 

A  few  reels  of  wire  at  each  frontier  post,  some  simple  in- 
struments and  appliances,  can  be  furnished  at  an  expense 
which,  as  compared  to  their  usefulness,  is  trivial.  A  sergeant 
and  half  a  dozen  soldiers,  taught  as  operators  and  line-men, 
are  a  sufficient  establishment. 

When  there  is  not  the  need  of  telegraphic  service,  these 
soldiers,  armed,  areas  valuable  as  any  others;  or  taking  the 
field  with  signal  equipments  and  glasses,  they  offer  every- 
where to  the  commander  a  power  which,  a  few  years  ago, 
was  not  imagined,  and  which  every  educated  officer  must 
now  appreciate. 


GENERAL  SERVICE  OF  THE  SIGNAL  CORPS. 

The  general  service  of  the  Signal  Corps  should  be  so  con- 
ducted  that  the  corps  may  offer  a  body  of  educated  and 
skilful  officers,  practised  in  the  duties  of  reconnoissance,  the 
studies  that  pertain  to  them,  and   the  habit  of  making  con- 


348  MANUAL   OF    SIGNALS. 

densed  reports;  skilled  also  in  the  arts  of  cryptography,  in 
ciphers,  and  in  the  especial  branches  of  semiology  and  tele- 
graphy :  the  soldiers  of  the  corps,  disciplined  and  drilled  in 
the  use  of  their  arms;  and,  as  soldiers,  should  be  besides  so 
drilled  in  the  practice  of  signalling  that  each  may  be  able  to 
transmit  any  simple  message  in  a  common  code,  and  so  to 
report  intelligence  gained  by  him,  or  to  send  communica- 
tions confided  to  him  for  that  purpose.  The  practice  in 
sio-nallino-  should  be  habitual,  as  is  that  in  the  Manual  of 

Arms. 

When  field  telegraphic  lines  are  to  be  used,  selected  de- 
tails must  be  practised  with  them  until  they  are  skilled  in 
the  management  of  the  instruments  and  the  lines. 

The  useful  service  of  the  Signal  Corps  is  by  no  means 
limited  to  those  brief  periods  during  which  an  army  is  in 
actual  movement  against  the  enemy.  When  the  army  is  at 
rest  and  time  hangs  heavily  for  want  of  active  service,  the 
signal-oflicer  can  never  act  amiss  if  his  parties  are  kept  in 
motion,  scouting  systematically  in  the  direction  in  which 
the  enemy  are ;  gathering  knowledge  of  their  position  and 
intentions,  exploring  and  roughly  mapping  the  country,  with 
its- roads,  trails,  springs,  water-courses,  etc.,  noting  its  facili- 
ties for  the  supply  or  the  transit  of  troops,  etc.,  and  so  collect- 
ing, day  by  day,  while  there  is  time,  information  of  every 
character,  the  value  of  which  in  reference  to  his  future  move- 
ments the  commanding  general  will  not  fail  to  appreciate. 
In  an  Indian  country,  large  tracts  can  be  thus  swept  over, 
the  dominant  points  noticed  for  convenience  in  future  op- 
erations, in  which  the  use  of  signals  may  be  necessary,  and 
telescopic  observations  made  from  peaks  and  places  to  which 
no  other  corps  in  service  is  called  by  duty.  From  a  single 
elevated  peak,  the  general  make  of  the  country,  its  grazing- 
grounds,  valleys,  water-courses,  forests,  etc.,  can  often  be 
marked  with  an  exactness  which  would  require  days  of  pain- 
ful marcjnng  and  the  movement  of  large  forces  to  secure  by 


MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS.  3*9 

following  the  roads.  From  separate  communicating  peaks 
an  extent  of  country  can  be  kept  in  such  observation  by  *r 
small  detachment,  that  the  main  body  need  rarely  move, 
unless  upon  definite  information.  A  few  signal-stations 
near  a  camp  or  post  afford  a  better  guaranty  for  its  safety, 
or  that  of  herds,  trains,  etc.,  near  it,  from  unexpected  at- 
tack, than  can  be  otherwise  had.  In  many  parts  of  the 
country  west  of  the  Mississippi,  a  line  of  stations  connecting 
commands  or  posts  would  be  at  once  points  of  observation, 
save  all  need  of  couriers,  and  enable  movements  to  be  made 
from  one  command  to  intercept  marauding  parties,  pursued 
or  traced  from  the  vicinity  of  the  other,  with  a  rapidity  to 
insure  their  capture.  A  reconnoissance  for  signal-stations 
in  which  the  proper  dominant  points  of  a  district  are  to  be 
visited,  and  the  country  thence  viewed  and  mapped,  will 
add  much  to  the  topographical  knowledge  of  the  country ; 
and  for  such  general  knowledge  as  is  needed  for  military 
operations,  is  better  than  an  ordinary  survey.  These,  and 
a  hundred  other  employments  of  a  signal-party,  will  suggest 
themselves  to  intelligent  officers,  acting  in  an  Indian  country. 
The  skill  of  the  Indian  lookouts  can  be  neutralized.  Our 
plans  of  signalling,  our  telescopes  and  apparatus  for  obser- 
vation, are  as  superior  to  their  efforts  as  we  are  in  our 
civilization  superior  to  their  barbarism.  It  is  not  probable 
that  any  commander  who  has  enjoyed  in  the  presence  of  the 
enemy  the  facility  of  communication  the  Signal  Corps  has 
given,  will  willingly  find  himself  in  active  operations  with- 
out a  representation  of  that  corps. 

It  has  been  attempted  to  show  on  preceding  pages  how 
details  from  the  corps  can  be  made  useful  wherever  tele- 
graphic facilities  of  any  kind  are  needed. 

In  such  labors,  the  study  they  will  necessitate,  the  pre- 
paration of  books,  papers,  and  forms  for  systematizing  and 
fixing  their  duties,  will,  perhaps,  be  found  the  employment 
of  a  signal-curps  for  a  few  years  to  come.     The  held  is  suHi- 


350  MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS. 

ciently  extensive,  and  the  work  is  necessary.  It  is  not 
flfobable  that  within  the  coming  century  any  well-appointed 
army  will  take  the  field  without  a  signal-corps  of  some  kind, 
or  that  the  co-operation  of  land  and  naval  forces  will  be  at- 
tempted without  a  service  of  this  description. 

The  condemnation  sure  to  fall  upon  any  commander  who 
should  invite  disaster  by  the  neglect  of  means  so  often  and 
successfully  tested,  will  insure  their  employment. 

For  service  with  a  grand  army,  consisting  of  several 
corps,  and  in  the  field,  the  following  organization  was  re- 
commended by  the  Military  Board  of  1863  : 

Basis,  an  Army  of  Two  or  More  Corps. 

At  General  Headquarters,  Statf  of  General  commanding: 
(1)  One  Captain,  Chief  Signal  Officer  of  that  army. 
(1)  One  Lieutenant,  Adjutant,  Officer  in  charge  of  Rec- 
ords. 

(1)  One  Lieutenant,  Quartermaster,  Ordnance  Officer,  and 

Property  Officer  commanding  Depot  Camp. 

(3)  Three  Sergeants,  as  Clerks. 

(6)  Six  1st  class  Privates,  as  assistant  clerks,  flagmen  and 
escorts. 

(2)  Two  Sergeants  in  charge  of  Reserve  Camp,  Depot, 

Stores. 

(4)  Four  1st  class  Privates  in  care  of  stores,  repairs,  etc. 

2d  class  Privates  detailed,  three  from  each  Corps 
Party,  as  guard  of  Reserve  Camp,  etc.,  and  in  charge 
of  Depot  trains  upon  the  march. 

Depot  Camp  to  be  near  Headquarters. 

Such  other  details  as  may  be  necessary  for  the  service  at 
General  Headquarters  to  be  made  for  the  occasion. 

For  each  Army  Corps. 
(l)  One  Captain,  Chief  Signal  Officer  of  the  Corps. 


MANUAL  OF  SIGNALS.  351 

(1)   One  Sergeant  as  Clerk. 

(l)   One    Sergeant    as    Quartermaster   and    Commissary 

Sergeant  of  the  Corps   Party  and   in   charge   of 

Train. 
(8)  Eight  Lieutenants. 
(5)  Five  Sergeants. 
(20  Twenty  1st  class  Privates. 
(34)  Thirty-four  2d  class  Privates. 

Additional  details  for  special  duties,  or  when  strong 
guards  or  escorts  are  to  be  required,  to  be  furnished  at  the 
discretion  of  the  general  commanding  the  corps. 

The  number  of  lieutenants  was  estimated  to  provide  for 
corps  of  three  or  four  full  divisions.  The  officers  to  form 
reserve  parties  to  be  detailed  from  the  corps  parties  as  oc- 
casion required. 

The  Board  suggested  the  following  detail  for  each  Field 
Telegraphic  Train : 

"  The  following  detail  is  suggested  for  each  Field  Tele- 
graph Train.  The  detail  to  be  drawn  from  the  Army  Corps 
detail: 

"  (1)  Orte  Lieutenant,  in  charge  of  Train,  commanding. 

"  (1)  One  Lieutenant,  as  assistant,  when  necessary  in  case 
of  extension  of  lines  required  to  be  worked  by  com- 
missioned officers,  or  on  the  field  of  battle. 

"  (2)  Two  Sergeants  as  chief  operators,  etc. 

"  (8)  Eight  1st  class  Privates  as  operators  and  line-men. 

"  (12)  Twelve  2d  class  Privates. 

"  This  force  to  be  increased  by  details  made  by  the  com- 
manding general  at  his  discretion,  or  by  the  chief  signal- 
officer  of  the  corps. 

"  The  2d  class  privates  to  be,  when  not  on  actual  duty  on 
the  line,  for  detail  on  escort  and  general  duty." 

This  detail  was  for  trains  intended  to  be  used  on  the  field 
of  battle. 


352  MANUAL   OF  SIGNALS. 

The  organizations  estimated  for  time  of  war  and  for  large 
armies  in  active  service  must  be  greatly  reduced,  both  as  to 
the  number  and  the  grades  of  its  members  in  time  of  peace. 

Signal-parties  should  be  armed  as  cavalry,  with  revolvers 
and  repeating  carbines.  In  camp,  or  where  large  numbers 
are  serving  together,  the  organization  and  provision  should 
be  that  for  companies  or  battalions — sergeants  acting  in 
place  of  corporals.  Parties  taking  the  field  for  service  con- 
stitute detachments,  certain  men  being  detailed  for  duty 
with  each  officer.  The  organization  of  engineer  troops 
affords  an  example. 

When  serving  for  a  length  of  time  by  detachments  on 
different  stations,  each  officer  returns  for  his  own  men,  and 
is  responsible  to  the  chief  with  the  forces  for  their  duty  and 
equipments. 

The  chief  signal-officer  in  a  military  division  or  depart-' 
ment  consolidates  at  headquarters  the  rolls  and  returns  of 
officers  and  men,  and  is  responsible  for  their  proper  supply 
and  instruction,  as  other  chiefs  are  responsible  for  staff 
corps. 

Reference  to  the  instructions  which  have  preceded  will, 
it  is  hoped,  convince  the  reader  that  it  is  within  the  power 
of  any  commander,  who  may  so  will,  to  be  himself  a  sig- 
nalist,  and  to  have  attached  to  his  command  officers,  and 
men,  instructed  by  himself  if  need  be,  whose  aid  in  some 
emergency  may  save  not  only  himself  and  his  command,  but 
a  decisive  action.  The  saving  to  the  national  cause  of 
Sherman's  base  at  Allatoona  in  the  campaign  upon  Atlanta, 
the  skilfully  directed  fire  of  Porter's  squadron  on  Fort 
Fisher,  and  numerous  instances  which  might  be  cited,  will 
recall  the  value  of  a  few  simple  messages  signalled  at  the 
proper  moment. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  war,  the  use  of  army-signals  was 
almost  unknown.       Telegraphs  were  novel  in  armies,  not 


MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS.  353 

practically  well  understood  by  our  soldiers,  and  not  pro- 
vided for  in  organization.  Very  little  was  known  of  the 
principles  of  telegraphic  communication.  It  was  not  known 
how  simply  signals  could  be  made,  nor  at  what  great  dis- 
tances they  were  legible.  The  duty  was  experimental. 
During  the  war  of  the  Rebellion  the  services  of  the  Signal 
Corps  were  greatly  developed,  and  at  its  close  the  records 
show  their  admitted  value. 

As  the  officers  who  command  our  armies  and  our  fleets 
become  yet  better  acquainted  with  the  uses  of  signals  and 
telegraphs,  the  facilities  they  give  in  operations,  and  the 
ease  with  which  they  may  be  employed,  thousands  of  ap- 
plications will  be  found  which  are  not  now  thought  of. 

Each  chief  signal-officer  should  cause  the  subjects  of  his 
duties,  and  their  value,  to  be  comprehended  by  the  general 
officers  with  whom  he  is  serving  ;  and  each  chief  should  see 
that  every  post  in  his  department,  which  might  be  liable  to 
be  at  any  time  isolated,  is  furnished  with  equipments,  codes, 
and  instructions  to  use  them.  The  issue  of  these  notes  will 
render  this  practicable.  Similar  provisions  ought  to  be 
made  for  co-operating  naval  vessels,  and  the  chief  of  each 
department  acting  under  instructions  from  the  central 
office,  should  be  held  responsible  that  no  detriment  hap- 
pens to  the  service  from  any  want  of  communication  be- 
tween its  different  branches. 


A  sisrnal-offieer  cannot  be  too  well  educated,  nor  too 
good  a  soldier. 

The  perfect  organization  and  discipline  of  the  signal- 
parties  require  some  knowledge  of  organization  ;  of  military 
rules  ;  the  manual  of  arms  ;  and  of  tactics. 

In  providing  for  his  own  safety  on  lonely  stations,  or  the 
safety  of  lines  under  his  care;    in   his  marches  with  small 


354  MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS. 

escorts  ;  his  reconnoissances  ;  and  in  the  drawing  of  the 
papers  in  which  finally  are  summed  the  results  of  his 
labors,  he  will  find  ample  exercise  for  all  soldierly  know- 
ledge he  can  grain. 

There  is  no  branch  of  the  service  in  which  military  prac- 
tice and  scientific  attainment  may  add  more  to  the  value 
of  an  officer,  or  he  more  variously  employed  to  advance 
the  interest  of  the  State. 

The  duties  of  signal-officers  in  time  of  war,  are  to  gain  as 
reconnoitring  officers  all  knowledge  of  the  country,  of  the 
movements  of  the  enemy,  and  the  position  of  our  own 
forces,  which,  communicated  to  the  commander,  may  aid 
in  forming  his  plans ;  to  collate  from  all  sources  what- 
ever information  may  be  of  value;  to  secure  the  quickest 
transmission  of  intelligence  within  the  lines  of  the  army, 
and  to  connect  the  divisions  of  any  forces  by  the  most 
rapid  communication. 

As  cavalry  has  been  styled  the  eyes  and  ears  of  an  army, 
so  the  detachments  of  the  Signal  Corps,  properly  equipped 
and  handled,  and  serving  with  efficient  escorts,  should  aim 
to  make  themselves  the  army's  eyes  and  ears  and  tongue. 
In  the  presence  of  the  enemy,  selected  officers  of  the  corps 
secure  information  by  observation  and  by  reconnoissance  or 
scouting.  Their  service  is  then  that  of  a  corps  of  well- 
educated  guides,  and  they  are  aided  in  the  transmission  of 
the  intelligence  they  may  gain  by  the  modes  now  used  in 
our  army ;  others  maintain  the  lines  of  communication  over 
which  the  reports  are  to  be  passed,  or  which  connect  the 
else  separated  forces. 

The  chief  signal-officer  with  an  army  ought  to  stand  in 
the  relation  of  almost  a  confidential  secretary  to  the  general 
commanding.  Through  him  should  go  dispatches,  commu- 
nications in  cipher,  etc.,  and  he  should  be  held  responsible 
for  their  transmission,  delivery,  and  record;  and  by  him 
should  be  collected  the  detached   reports  and  commnnica- 


MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS.  355 

tions  which,  coming  in  as  brief  dispatches  from  different 
sources  during  the  day,  admit  of  collation  and  consolida- 
tion, to  <i-ive  some  connected  information  at  night.  His 
office  is  a  bureau  in  which  to  concentrate,  and  whence  to 
distribute,  reports  of  general  information  in  reference  to  any 
section  of  country,  or  any  particular  military  operation. 
The  general  supervision  of  courier  lines  may  be  confided  to 
this  officer  in  connection  with  the  duties  of  his  corps,  and 
special  scouts  report  to  him  for  particular  assignments. 

Preparatory  to  an  action,  the  Signal  Corps  should  be 
divided  into  three  parties: 

1st.  A  reconnoitring  party. 

2d.  A  party  for  service  on  stations. 

3d.  A  party  to  serve  with  the  flying  telegraph. 

The  officers  of  the  reconnoitring  party,  moving  out  be- 
fore the  action  and  during  its  continuance,  penetrate  every- 
where, bv  different  roads,  upon  the  flank  or  towards  the 
enemy,  and,  gaining  whatever  knowledge  they  can,  report 
to  the  stations,  which  in  their  turn  concentrate  this  know- 
ledge at  headquarters. 

These  parties  do  not  rest  during  the  engagement,  and 
each  of  them  sends  frequent  reports  by  courier.  They 
carry  with  them,  on  some  of  the  roads,  bombs  or  other 
signals,  and  establish  posts  which  may  warn  if  the  enemy 
attempt. certain  anticipated  movements.  They  are  continu- 
ally on  the  alert,  and  are  furnished  with  definite  instruc- 
tions as  to  the  facts  concerning  which  they  are  to  observe 
and  report. 

The  station-party  occupies  points  upon  or  near  the  field, 
whence  they  can  view  the  enemy's  position  and  the  circum- 
jacent country,  and  report  continually,  during  the  progress 
of  the  action,  to  the  headquarters-station  and  to  the  tele- 
graphic stations,  whatever  comes  under  their  observation. 

The  telegraphic  party  carries  the  light  telegraphic  lines 
to  the  different  corps-headquarters  as  soon  as  the  troops  are 


356  MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS. 

established,  and  also  through  such  woods  or  other  obstacles 
as  would  else  prevent  communication  from  the  dominant 
signal-stations;  and  upon  or  near  these  stations  they  estab- 
lish telegraphic  stations  to  communicate  by  signal  with 
others  inaccessible,  or  to  change  frequently. 

If  naval  co-operation  is  expected,  officers  are  detailed  to 
report  to  the  senior  naval  officer  before  the  action,  and  are 
assigned  by  him  to  different  vessels.  These  officers  ascer- 
tain as  nearly  as  may  be  the  proposed  positions  of  the  fleet, 
and  prearrange  with  those  on  shore  the  points  at  which 
they  will  be  in  communication. 

If  communication  is  to  be  between  ships  in  a  bay  or  river, 
the  officers  will  consult  together,  if  possible,  before  parting, 
as  to  the  place  at  which  the  ships  will  probably  be,  the 
color  of  the  flags  it  will  be  best  to  use,  and  in  what  direc- 
tion, by  compass,  the  vessels  will  be  from  each  other.  They 
will  consider,  also,  whether  signals  will  be  preferably  made 
from  the  decks  or  the  rigging,  as  the  "  tops,"  and  whether 
the  make  of  the  land  or  river-bank  is  such  that  it  is  likely 
the  hulls  of  the  vessels  will  be  hidden  from  each  other,  as 
by  rising  grounds  or  by  trees.  It  is  possible  this  will  be 
the  case.  It  will  be  considered,  also,  whether  the  masts 
will  show  above  the  trees,  and  how  much  of  them  will  show. 
To  ascertain  this  point,  the  officers  should,  together,  ascend 
the  rigging  and  estimate  the  height  of  the  obstacles  in  the 
direction  in  which  it  is  supposed  the  signalling  will  be 
necessary. 

When  any  part  of  the  mast  of  a  vessel  can  be  seen  above 
the  trees  from  the  top  of  the  mast-head  on  any  other  vessel, 
communication  can  be  had  from  "  Crow-nests,"  fitted  at  the 
mast-heads  of  the  corresponding  vessels. 

When  vessels,  co-operating  with  land  forces,  are  to  go 
into  action,  the  post  of  the  signal-officer  is  the  "  foretop,"  or 
in  the  "  maintop,"  and  arrangements  must  be  made  for  rais- 
ino-  or  lowering  written  messages  by  cords.     A  signal-flag 


MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS.  357 

should  always  be  kept  flying  from  some  prominent  position 
on  every  vessel  carrying  a  signal-officer.  Signal-officers, 
serving  with  troops,  or  on  other  vessels,  can  thus  know  with 
what  ships  it  is  possible  to  have  verbal  communication. 

Signal-officers  carrying  with  them  apparatus  for  clay  and 
night  signals,  and  always  some  rockets  and  candle-bombs, 
should  invariably  accompany  forces  about  to  land.  A  few 
preconcerted  signals  for  possible  events  should  be  arranged 
before  landing;  and  the  landing-signalist  and  the  signalist 
to  remain  on  ship-board  should  together  determine  some 
points  on  shore  from  which  the  first  communication  shall 
be  had.  Forces  landing  and  moving  inland,  so  as  to  be 
covered  by  woods,  etc.,  may  yet  indicate  their  progress  and 
preconcerted  messages  by  Chronosemic  Signals,  as  rockets 
and  bombs  thrown  above  the  trees,  and  can  receive  the 
recognition  or  reply,  by  guns,  or  other  sound-signals. 

If  there  is  a  commanding  peak  near  where  the  enemy 
offer  battle,  signal-officers  should  be  hurried  to  it  in  advance 
of  the  army.  The  enemy  are  to  be  kept  constantly  in  view 
from  the  time  the  position  is  reached.  The  knowledge  to 
be  gained  by  witnessing  thus  the  formation  of  their  forces, 
by  estimating  their  strength  before  their  lines  are  in  posi- 
tion, and  by  witnessing  early  what  preparations  are  made 
fo"r  the  battle,  may  be  invaluable. 

In  a  reconnoissance  of  a  field  of  battle,  the  signal-officer 
must  notice  carefully  how  many  lines  of  battle  there  are, 
and  he  must  not  fail  to  report  the  number.  If  furnished 
with  a  scale-glass,  he  must  find  the  distance  and  direction 
of  almost  every  marked  object  in  the  enemy's  line,  from 
some  known  point  within  our  own.  Make  this  observation 
particularly  in  reference  to  batteries,  reserves,  ammunition 
trains,  etc.  Report  these  distances  and  directions  with  pre- 
cision to  the  general  commanding,  and  to  the  generals  near 
you.  Send  copies  also  to  officers  commanding  heavy  bat- 
teries.    Note  carefully  <ind  report  the  direction  in   which 


858  MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS. 

the  enemy's  guns  are  pointed,  what  roads  or  fields  they 
seem  to  cover.  See  where  their  cavalry  is  posted,  or  where 
they  have  cavalry  pickets  out.  This  sometimes  shows  the 
position  of  their  flank  and  of  the  point  from  which  they  fear 
attack.  Study  closely  the  ground  in  cornfields,  in  groves, 
in  fields  covered  with  low  bushes,  behind  stone  fences,  for 
lines  of  men  lying  hidden  in  ambush,  or  for  masked  guns. 
Seek  such  forces,  not  only  in  front  of  the  lines,  but  far  to 
the  right  and  left,  over  Avhich  the  troops  are  to  pass.  They 
may  be  so  posted  to  have  an  enfilading  fire  on  the  advancing 
lines.  If  artillery  is  to  fire  upon  any  point  not  visible  from 
the  guns,  notice  something  near  it  by  which  to  point  it  out ; 
give  the  exact  bearing  and  the  distance  of  the  object  from 
the  battery,  and  regulate  the  aim  by  signals  from  the  sta- 
tion. Signal-officers  should  make  themselves  acquainted 
with  the  elevation,  charges,  length  of  fuse,  etc.,  allowed  in 
artillery  firing  at  different  ranges.  Give  the  distance  and 
direction  of  any  thing  described  and  to  be  sought  within 
the  enemy's  lines  from  some  marked  point,  as  a  house,  a 
hill,  or  tree,  also  within  the  enemy's  lines  and  visible  from 
our  own.  If  the  enemy  have  covered,  or  are  covering,  any 
part  of  their  line  with  breastworks  or  in  trenches,  the  fact 
should  be  fully  reported  upon.  If  the  enemy  commences 
to  change  a  line,  notify  the  commanding  general  of  the  fact 
at  once,  and  report,  from  time  to  time,  the  progress  of  the 
movement.  Continue  to  watch  and  to  report  upon  the 
enemy  in  their  new  position.  Report  the  direction  and  ex- 
tent of  the  new  line  so  far  as  it  is  visible,  and  state  to  what 
point  it  probably  extends,  if  it  is  hidden  in  part  from  view. 
Ascertain,  as  nearly  as  possible,  the  points  at  which  troops 
are  massed  or  massing,  and  estimate  their  numbers. 

It  will  add  much  to  the  value  of  all  reports  if  the  report- 
ing officer  has  a  knowledge  of  the  different  orders  of  battle. 

While  observing  the  enemy,  notice  minutely  by  what 
roads  and  whence  their  ammunition  and  supply-trains  come. 


MANUAL  OF  SIGNALS.  359 

To  be  able  thus  to  judge  where  their  depot  is  located  may 
be  Important.  Examining  villages,  houses,  <>r  walls,  near 
the  field  of  battle,  see  if  they  are  loop-holed.  Notice  bodies 
or  small  parties  of  troops  moving  into  or  out  of  them. 

Lines  of  battle  may  be  described  by  their  number, 
length,  position,  and  the  direction  in  which  they  extend, 
given  by  compass.  Trains  are  reported  by  their  length,  the 
number  of  wagons,  or  the  time  occupied  in  passing  a  given 
object  :  artillery,  cavalry,  and  infanty,  by  the  number  of 
guns,  the  regiments,  or  time  of  passage  at  the  ordinary  rate 
of  march. 

Cavalry  Raids. 

"When  a  hostile  cavalry  force  is  reported  in  the  vicinity 
of  an  army,  or  as  moving  through  any  section  of  the  coun- 
try, a  signal-party  should  at  once  be  sent  to  follow  it  as 
closely  as  they  may,  to  report  upon  its  movements,  and  to 
annoy  it  by  indicating  its  position  to  such  of  our  troops  as 
may  be  in  pursuit.  These  signal-parties  fire,  at  different 
times  at  night,  rockets  or  roman  candles,  to  show  the  gen- 
eral direction  in  which  the  enemy  may  be.  During  the  day 
cartridge-puffs  or  heavy  smokes  should  be  raised,  for  the 
same  purpose.  Codes  of  chronosemic  signals  may  be  used 
in  cases  of  this  kind  with  splendid  effect.  To  this  end  of 
attracting  attention  and  directing  the  march  of  friendly 
troops  upon  the  enemy,  if  there  is  a  known  chance  to  cap- 
ture or  destroy  them,  hay-stacks,  wood-piles,  or  out-build- 
ings ought  to  be  fired  (using  proper  judgment),  anywhere 
they  may  be  found  in  the  country  lying  near  the  line  of  the 
enemy's  march, — the  officer  ordering  the  firing  giving  a 
certificate  to  the  owners,  that  the  property  was  fired  for 
government  uses.  The  firing  of  these  signals,  of  any  kind, 
must  follow  the  track  of  the  enemy  from  place  to  place. 
It  is  the  object  to  thus  mark  his  course,  that  preparations 
may   be    made   in    his   advance   to   intercept    him,  or   that 


360  MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS. 

troops  in  pursuit  may  know  in  what  direction  to  march  or 
to  concentrate.  80  in  front  of  an  enemy,  presumed  to  be 
advancing  on  any  roads,  small  signal-parties  should  be  sent 
out  on  every  road.  These  parties  are  to  fall  back,  firing 
signals,  raising  smokes,  or  kindling  fires,  as  the  enemy  ad- 
vances. Some  of  the  parties  ought  to  conceal  themselves 
near  the  roads,  to  gain  all  the  information  they  can  before 
reporting ;  others  to  wait,  with  the  signals  ready  to  be 
fired,  and  only  light  them  when  the  foe  drives  them  from 
their  position.  Thus  a  cartridge-puff  may  be  raised  at  the 
last  moment  it  is  safe  to  remain  at  a  station.  A  few  daring 
men  can  thus  cause  infinite  annoyance  to  an  enemy,  whose 
success  is  often  depending  on  the  secrecy  of  his  movements. 
In  all  cases  of  this  kind,  a  dominant  station,  or  stations, 
must  be  chosen  somewhere,  from  which  the  signals  made, 
in  any  part  of  the  country,  can  at  once  be  noted  and  re- 
ported, and  whence  reports  must  frequently  go  to  the 
senior  commander  in  the  vicinity,  and  to  the  general  com- 
manding. A  constant  watch  must  be  kept  from  this  posi- 
tion ;  and  signals  seen  in  any  part  of  the  country  must 
be  at  once  reported  as  to  their  distance,  kind,  and  direc- 
tion. 

When  several  parties  are  in  pursuit  of  Indians,  that  upon 
the  trail  may  notify  the  others  of  its  direction,  etc.,  by 
chronosemic  signals,  fired  from  time  to  time,  as  above  de- 
scribed in  the  pursuit  of  cavalry. 

Observation  and  Keconnoissance. 

The  observations  and  reconnoissances  made  by  signal- 
officers  differ  from  those  of  other  reconnoitring  officers,  in 
the  facts  that,  by  their  long  practice,  they  are  able  to  use 
their  telescopes  with  an  almost  wonderful  skill ;  and  that  the 
information  they  gain  can  sometimes  be  compared  by  them, 
.from  the  place  of  observation,  with  that  had  at  the  same 


MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS.  301 

time  by  other  officers  in  view  and  watching  the  enemy  from 
other  points,  by  the  immediate  transmission  from  one  to 
the  other  of  the  facts  noticed  by  each.  The  reports  of  t he ir 
reeonnoissanees  can  also,  in  many  instances,  be  at  once  com- 
municated to  the  commanding  general  from  the  place  at 
which  the  observations  are  making,  while  the  reconnoitring 
officer  remains  to  add  further  to  his  information.  The 
reports  are  of  a  general  character,  relating  to  the  presence 
or  movements  of  the  enemy,  etc.,  such  as  are  made  by 
scouts.  They  are  not  expected  to  embrace  the  specialties 
exhibited  in  a  report  of  engineers.  An  officer  is  often 
j)osted  for  weeks  together  at  one  station  of  observation. 

For  a  principal  station  of  observation,  a  point  dominant  to 
the  surrounding  country,  within  good  range  of  the  place  to 
which  the  reports  are  to  go,  and  within  good  range  and 
view  of  other  stations  which  are  to  communicate  with  it, 
should  be  selected. 

The  principal  station  of  observation  ought  to  command-a 
view  of  fords,  principal  roads,  railways,  bridges,  towns, 
camps,  gaps  in  mountains,  rivers,  ports,  as  the  case  may  be, 
and  generally  of  the  routes  of  march  or  movement  in  that 
section  of  the  country. 

"When  one  permanent  station  of  observation  has  been 
selected,  other  temporary  stations  ought  to  be  chosen  at 
points  within  a  few  miles,  and  the  country  covered  by  them 
should  be  studied  in  the  same  way  as  from  the  principal 
station.  The  officer  in  charge  of  the  permanent  station  can 
then,  at  any  time,  send  a  subordinate  or  go  himself  to  either 
of  these  stations,  whenever  especially  extensive  reeonnois- 
sanees or  reports  are  needed. 

The  observations  from  permanent  stations  should  extend 
to  points  far  from  the  enemy's  lines,  and  to  all  the  routes  by 
which  an  enemy  might  move. 

Observations  should  be  made  of  the  different  parts  of  the 
country  at  different    times  each  day,  and  any  point  to  be. 

16 


362  MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS. 

critically  examined  should  be  particularly  scrutinized  when 
the  sunlight  falls  strongly  upon  it. 

Stations  near  the  enemy  should  always  be  carefully 
guarded  by  pickets  and  outposts ;  and  if  they  are  at  all 
important,  an  especial  guard  should  be  provided. 

An  officer  assigned  to  a  station  of  observation  should  be 
always  supplied  with  the  best  attainable  map  of  the  country ; 
his  glasses  and  signal  equipments ;  a  scale-glass,  if  possible ; 
a  time-piece,  dispatch  blanks,  compass,  pencils,  papers,  blue 
and  red  pencils  for  drawing  on  maps,  and  tracing-paper  on 
which  to  extemporize  maps. 

A  portion  of  every  signal-party  must  be  organized  and 
well  equipped  with  implements  for  the  erection  of  towers 
and  platforms,  and  the  construction  of  stations  generally. 

An  officer  about  to  occupy  any  position  should  prearrange 
for  the  construction  of  a  tower  or  platfonn  in  trees,  as  soon 
as  he  may  reach  it.  He  must  select  the  exact  ground  him- 
self, and  must  in  person  superintend  the  construction  ;  espe- 
cially if  it  is  to  be  in  the  presence  of  the  enemy,  or  if  an 
engagement  is  expected.  His  party  should  carry  with  it 
axes,  ropes,  and  nails,  that  no  moment  may  be  lost  in  se- 
curing a  position  for  successful  observation. 

Observations  of  reconnoissance  are  generally  made  from 
several  prominent  stations.  They  are  to  be  briefly  made, 
but  they  ought  to  be  made  with  scrupulous  exactness.  The 
parties  moving  with  signal-officers  on  reconnoissance  are 
generally  small.  They  should  move  with  the  utmost  ra- 
pidity and  secrecy. 

Near  the  enemy,  advance  guards  or  videttes  of  two  or 
three  men  should  be  kept  out,  each  about  two  hundred 
yards  from  the  other.  There  should  be,  in  the  same  way, 
one  or  two  videttes  in  the  rear  of  the  party.  In  suspicious 
localities,  a  vidette  or  two  ought  to  be  sent  out  three  or 
four  hundred  yards  on  each  flank,  and  then  keep  up,  going 
through  the  fields,  woods,  etc.,  with  the  movement  of  the 


MANUAL    OF    SIGNALS.  363 

party.     No  matter  how  small   the  party,  these  precautions 

should  be  taken.  It'  there  are  but  two  men  accompanying 
the  officer,  one  ought  to  ride  well  to  the  front  just  in  view, 

the  other  at  some  distance  in  the  rear.  The  officer  should 
always  keep  himself  thus  guarded,  riding  near  the  centre  of 
the  party,  where,  if  the  party  is  strong  enough,  he  lias  a 
little  reserve.  At  each  point  at  which  he  halts  for  observa- 
tion, to  use  his  glass,  his  compass,  his  maps,  or  flags,  he  must 
throw  out  his  videttes  and  station  them  to  watch  all 
dangerous  directions.  These  are  instructed  to  raise  a  shout, 
or  make  some  signal  under  any  circumstances,  if  they  are 
captured  or  if  they  are  in  danger  of  capture.  It  is  the  ob- 
ject of  this  care  to  make  it  impossible  to  surprise  and  capture 
the  whole  party.  In  case  of  danger,  the  party  rallies  and 
tights,  or  escapes. 

On  this  duty,  officers  seek  the  points  likely  to  command  a 
view  of  the  country  in  which  the  enemy  are.  They  examine 
roads  and  map  them  roughly,  being  careful  to  give  always 
a  complete  scale  of  distances  and  the  compass  points  upon 
the  map;  and  they  mark  upon  this  map,  as  well  as  they  can, 
the  positions  in  which  the  enemy  are  seen,  or  where  they 
are  said  to  be  located. 

Information  as  to  the  best  points  of  view  in  any  country, 
for  the  purpose  of  examining  in  any  particular  direction,  can 
generally  be  had  from  citizens.  Careful  inquiry  should  be 
made  on  this  point ;  and  it  should  be  remembered,  while  in- 
terrogating, that  persons  not  accustomed  to  the  telescope, 
cannot,  understand ingly,  advise  for  the  selection  of  points 
for  its  use,  and  that  they  have  but  little  idea  of  the  great 
distances  at  which  it  can  be  successfully  employed.  They 
should  be  questioned,  therefore,  when  naming  points  of 
view,  as  to  what  towns,  cities,  rivers,  roads,  etc.,  are  thence 
visible. 

In  making  a  reconnoissancc,  it  is  always  well  to  be  ac- 
companied by  an  experienced  countryman   as  a  guide,  and 


361  MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS. 

•  such  guide  should  be  obtained,  if  possible,  before  the  party 
starts  out.  When  this  is  impracticable,  such  assistance 
must  be  sought  from  persons  residing  near  points  whence 
the  observation  is  to  be  made. 

It  is  a  rule,  in  any  case,  when  without  special  information, 
to  seek  the  summit  of  the  highest  hills  in  reach.  The  party 
should  carry  axes,  as  the  felling  of  a  few  trees  or  bushes 
will  often  make  a  station,  otherwise  of  little  value,  the 
most  useful  for  observation.  There  is  nothing  more  annoy- 
ing, to  a  zealous  officer,  than  a  poor  observation  of  some 
position  or  movement  of  the  enemy,  which,  but  for  the 
want  of  such  simple  means,  he  feels  he  might  have  made 
perfect. 

The  reconnoissances  of  signal-officers  ought  to  be  pushed 
to  the  utmost.  The  extent  of  the  enemy's  lines  must  be 
traced,  if  that  is  possible. 

In  the  movements  of  great  armies,  when  lines  are  miles  in 
length,  it  is  often  of  high  importance  to  know  their  flank 
outposts.     These  must  be  discovered,  if  possible. 

"When  the  position  of  the  enemy  is  known,  it  must  be 
observed  whether  there  are  elevated  points  behind  him, 
whence  communication  may  be  had,  over  his  forces,  to 
others  on  his  front  or  flank, — these  points  being,  perhaps, 
known  to  be  in  friendly  hands.  In  such  a  case,  signal- 
parties  must  be  sent  far  round  the  enemy's  flank  to  occupy 
them  at  every  hazard.  Reconnoissances  carefully  made 
and  reported  under  circumstances  of  this  kind,  may  be 
most  valuable. 

Signal  parties  of  reconnoissance  should  gather  informa- 
tion also  in  relation  to  the  enemy,  from  the  statements  of 
citizens, — the  inquiries  being  as  to  the  numbers,  number  of 
guns,  wagons,  length  of  trains,  and  of  the  column ;  condi- 
tion of  supply  in  which  the  men  seem  to  be,  and  the 
morale:  other  questions  will  readily  suggest  themselves. 
Different  persons  ought  to  be  questioned  on  the  same  sub- 


MANUAL  OF   BIGNALS.  365 

ject  at  points  distant  from  each  other,  and  their  accounts 
compared,  to  see  how  they  coincide. 

When  reconnoissances  are  to  be  made,  it  ought  to  be  so 
arranged,  if  possible,  that  the  resnlts  may  be  at  once  re- 
ported to  some  fixed  station,  from  certain  points  agreed 
upon  in  the  direction  in  which  the  reconnoissance  is  to  be, 
and  in  view  of  the  fixed  station.  The  reports  may  go  from 
this  station  by  telegraph. 

Certain  hours  of  the  day  may  be  fixed  for  these  reports, 
or  the  time  may  be  estimated  when  the  moving  party  will 
reach  the  designated  station. 

Preconcerted  signals  should  also  be  arranged  to  be  given  ; 
as  by  codes  of  Chronosemie  Signals,  prepared  for  rockets, 
cartridge-puffs,  smokes,  etc.,  to  report  such  facts  as  ought 
to  be  instantly  known,  as  soon  as  they  may  be  discovered 
by  the  reconnoitring  parties  advancing.  These  signals  are 
to  he  acknowledged  from  the  observing  station ;  and  lines 
of  repeating  stations  may  be  arranged  when  necessary. 

In  Indian  wars  the  signalist  must  use  much  caution, 
making  his  observations  from  peaks,  but  keeping  himself 
hidden,  and  signalling  the  results  of  Ins  reconnoissance  to 
the  parties  below  from  some  nook  or  hollow,  where  his  flag 
will  be  shut  off  from  view  except  toward  the  observers.  It 
is  for  reports  of  this  nature  that  "  position-signals,"  to  be 
made  with  as  little  show  as  possible,  will  be  found  useful. 

The  general  rules  of  reconnoissance  given  in  standard 
military  works  furnish  instruction  as  to  the  proper  subjects 
for  inquiry  and  observation,  and  the  mode  in  which  the 
inquiries  and  observations  are  to  be  made.  These  rules 
ought  to  be  carefully  studied. 

A  few  suggestions  are  given  for  officers  who  have  no  re- 
course to  complete  works. 

On  reaching  any  point  of  observation,  find  from  some  in- 
telligent countryman,  hired  or  compelled  to  act  as  guide, 
the  names  and  distances  of  all  prominent  houses,  churches, 


3G6  MANUAL  OF   SIGNALS. 

etc.,  in  sight,  and  their  computed  distances  from  the 
station. 

If  water-courses  are  in  view,  in  any  direction,  cause  the 
guide  to  point  out  the  course  where  the  water  is  not  visible, 
and  also  to  indicate  objects  or  points  in  view,  some  of  which 
are  on  the  near  and  others  on  the  distant  sides  of  the  course. 
The  movements  or  position  of  troops  or  trains  visible  may 
thus  be  referred  to  by  these  objects.  Let  the  guide  also 
show  about  where  are  the  bridges  and  fords,  to  the  end  that 
the  intention  of  forces  moving  near  them  may  be  divined. 
Let  him  be  questioned  closely  as  to  the  direction  and  condi- 
tion of  all  the  roads  in  view,  and  gain  from  him  all  possible 
information. 

The  location  of  cities,  ports,  or  posts  can  often  be  exactly 
fixed  by  the  appearance  of  one  spire,  or  the  top  of  a  flag- 
staff, which  comes  into  view ;  or  by  clouds  of  smoke  or  dust 
which,  when  the  air  is  still,  hang  about  it. 

The  courses  of  roads  can  sometimes  be  traced  a  long 
distance  by  dust  rising  above  the  trees,  and  by  noticing  the 
clear  cuts  through  the  trees  where  the  road  enters  a  forest. 

To  ascertain  from  a  distance  whether  troops  are  in  a  town, 
it  must  be  watched  long  and  at  different  times  of  the  day. 
Sentinels  will  probably  be  seen  posted  at  some  points,  and 
the  unusual  number  of  men  in  the  streets  may  give  some 
information.  Note  if  at  any  time  in  the  day  the  horses  are 
brought  out  by  twos  to  be  watered ;  and  whether  trains 
moving  into  the  place  stop  or  pass  through  it. 

Observe  whether  there  are  pickets  thrown  out. 

When  columns  of  troops  are  moving  very  far  off,  it  is 
often  very  difficult  to  tell  whether  they  are  troops,  or  how 
moving.  Watch  the  line,  to  see  if  a  break  or  spot  at  which 
it  seems  thinner  can  be  found ;  and  notice  carefully,  with 
the  glass  at  rest,  whether  this  spot  moves,  and  in  what 
direction.  Look  also  for  the  glimmer  of  reflected  light 
from  muskets. 


MANUAL  OF   SIGNALS.  367 

If  any  part  of  a  marching  force  comes  in  view,  by  fixing 
upon  a  wagon,  or  some  marked  object  in  tbe  force,  and 
noticing  the  direction  in  which  it  crosses  a  line  on  a  scale- 
glass,  the  glass  at  rest  and  fixed  steadily  upon  it,  the  direc- 
tion of  the  movement  may  be  judged. 

One  gaudily  dressed  soldier,  or  a  single  mounted  man,  or 
any  marked  object,  which  can  be  distinguished  from  the 
mass,  may  fix  the  direction. 

Clouds  of  dust  should  be  scrutinized. 

If  the  dust  moves  against  the  wind,  or  across  the  current 
of  wind,  there  can  be  no  question  as  to  the  direction  of  the 
movement ;  but  movements  miles  away  may  give  wrong 
impressions.  For  this  reason  the  officer  should  always 
try  to  know  beforehand,  either  by  personal  observation  or 
study  of  the  map,  the  roads  on  which  the  movements  in 
different  parts  of  the  country  must  be.  This  aids  the  de- 
cision. 

If  dust  rises  in  separate  clouds,  or  is  more  dense  at  some 
points  than  at  others,  the  clouds  disappearing  after  a  little 
time  along  a  tract  of  road,  notice  two  points  at  which  the 
clouds  rise  one  after  the  other,  and  deduce  the  direction  in 
which  the  force  must  be  moving,  supposing  it  to  be  the 
same  force  which  raises  each  cloud.  In  the  same  way,  in 
a  continuous  cloud  of  dust,  the  clouds  may  rise  more  dense- 
ly as  the  force  passes  points  in  the  road  more  dusty  than 
others. 

Smokes  may  indicate  the  direction  of  a  march.  These 
are  generally  raised,  from  time  to  time,  from  cook-fires, 
teamsters'  fires,  or  fires  wantonly  kindled  by  troops  march- 
ing. If  they  rise  further  and  further  in  any  direction  during 
the  day,  it  is  almost  conclusive  there  is  some  movement 
in  that  direction.  Smokes  observed  early  in  the  morning, 
almost  always  rest  over  or  near  the  camp  from  which  they 
have  risen. 

Smokes  should  be  carefully  looked  for  after  a  rain,  for 


368  MANUAL    OF   SIGNALS. 

troops  that  have  been  wetted  and  are  chilly  will  then  light 
fires  in  disobedience  of  orders.  In  long-continued  battles, 
concealed  lines  can  be  traced  in  this  manner. 

Smokes  may  sometimes  be  raised  one  after  the  other  in 
particular  directions  to  deceive ;  and  clouds  of  dust  are 
caused  for  the  same  purpose,  by  driving  wagons  over  a 
dusty  road.  The  work  is  apt  to  be  overdone,  and  the  clouds 
to  be  so  dense  and  continuous  as  to  excite  suspicion. 

Large  bodies  of  troops  are  often  marched  through  fields 
by  the  sides  of  roads,  crossing  the  country  in  this  way,  and 
thus  raising  very  little  dust.  Sometimes,  under  these  cir- 
cumstances, wagons  may  be  in  view  moving  in  one  direction 
upon  the  roads,  while  the  troops  march  in  opposite  direction 
through  the  fields.  When  it  is  desired  to  know  whether 
the  enemy  are  or  are  not  re-enforcing  a  position,  movements 
of  this  kind  require  close  study. 

Troops  and  trains  are  sometimes  marched  in  a  circle,  and 
are  allowed  to  be  seen  at  some  point  where  they  present  the 
appearance  of  a  very  great  force  moving  in  one  direction. 
If  careful  note  is  made  of  each  regiment,  battery,  and  train, 
as  they  come  in  view,  they  will,  after  a  little  while,  repeat 
themselves  in  the  same  order.  Notice,  in  suspected  cases 
of  this  kind,  some  remarkable  gun,  wagon,  or  flag,  and  see 
if  it  returns  from  time  to  time  to  view ;  and  look  for  the 
dust,  etc.,  which  ought,  if  the  movement  is  genuine,  to  be 
raised  far  in  the  direction  in  which  the  column  seems  to  be 
passing. 

A  force  moving  upon  a  road  can  often  be  computed  when 
only  a  very  small  portion  of  the  road  is  visible.  It  being 
known  by  the  dust  or  other  signs  that  troops  are  moving 
upon  the  road,  turn  the  glass  upon  the  visible  part,  and 
count  each  regiment,  gun,  wagon,  etc.,  as  it  shows  itself  in 
passing.  The  length  and  strength  of  the  column  can  be 
computed  also  by  noticing  its  order  of  march,  and  the  time 
it  occupies  in  passing  any  given  position. 


M  \NUAL  OF   SIGNALS.  369 

A  force  encamped  may  be  computed  by  counting  the 
tents  and  estimating  the  occupants  of  each  tent. 

When  any  part  of  the  enemy's  force  is  thought  to  be 
moving-  at  night,  or  there  is  a  probability  it  will  soon  move, 
h»ok  out  for  the  glare  of  its  fires  upon  the  sky.  This  glare 
may  indicate  its  position,  when  the  fires  themselves  cannot 
be  seen. 

Fires  in  view  may  indicate  the  position  of  troops  at  night. 
A  rough  computation  of  numbers  may  be  made  by  allowing 
an  averaged  number  of  men  for  each  lire. 

An  unusually  large  number  and  very  bright  fires  may  de- 
note the  presence  of  re-enforcements.  Or  they  may  be 
kindled  to  deceive.  When  the  fires  are  in  fair  view,  study 
them  one  by  one  with  the  telescope,  and  note  whether  per- 
sons are  moving  around  them.  When  fires  are  kindled  to 
deceive,  they  are  often  replenished  at  certain  hours  by  de- 
tails. If  all  grow  dull  and  brighten  simultaneously,  there 
is  room  for  suspicion. 

If  it  is  thought  the  enemy  are  about  to  evacuate  any  po- 
sition, look  out  for  signs  of  burning  stores,  etc.  Notice  if 
the  smokes  visible  are  of  different  colors,  for  this  adds 
to  the _ probability  that  they  rise  from  burning  stores. 
Stores  of  different  kinds  burn  with  differently  colored 
smokes. 

Xotice  whether  trains  arriving  empty  depart  laden,  and 
whether  there  are  unusual  movements  of  troops  or  trains 
from  the  position. 

The  destruction  of  railway  tracks  may  be  surmised  if  lines 
of  smokes,  or  smokes  rising  at  separate  points  for  many 
miles,  are  seen.  The  smoke  from  burning  railway  ties  gen- 
erally appears  in  wreaths  of  white  and  black,  the  white 
arising  from  the  steam  of  the  moistened  wood,  the  black 
from  the  seasoned  timber.  Unseasoned  timber  burns  with 
a  bluish  smoke. 

If  the  enemy  are  stationary,  look  carefully  for  their  line 

1G* 


370  MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS. 

of  pickets.  Notice  whether  they  are  mounted  or  on  foot. 
If  mounted,  it  is  likely  they  are  some  distance  from  any 
large  force  of  infantry. 

By  carefully  looking  for  the  cooking-smokes  by  day,  or 
the  fire-lights  by  night;  the  whole  picket  line  may  some- 
times be  accurately  discovered.  Notice  if  this  line  differs 
at  night  from  the  day. 

When  an  officer  is  stationed  long  in  front  of  an  enemy, 
he  should  endeavor  to  so  closely  observe  his  camps,  works, 
strength,  etc.,  that  any  marked  change  of  any  force  will  at- 
tract his  attention. 

Signal-officers  will  be  greatly  aided,  and  thus  enabled  to 
render  more  valuable  service,  if  the  commanding  general, 
or  the  chief  of  staff",  will  from  time  to  time  send  to  them  at 
their  stations  brief  instructions  as  to  the  information  they 
desire  :  as  to  observe  particular  tracts  of  country  or  particu- 
lar roads;  to  look  out  for  indicated  movements  of  the  enemy; 
to  notice  whether  re-enforcements  arrive  by  certain  roads ; 
whether  troops  are  moved  in  named  positions,  etc. ; — such 
instructions  in  general  as  the  commander  may  think  the 
facilities  of  observation  at  the  stations  will  permit  to  be 
obeyed.  "Without  this  care,  many  facts  may  come  under 
the  observation  of  a  signal-officer  without  mention  in  his 
reports,  for  the  reason  that  he,  ignorant  perhaps  of  the  po- 
sition of  our  own  forces,  or  of  what  are  the  presumed  plans 
of  the  enemy,  may  not  know  the  points  upon  which  his 
commander  desires  to  be  especially  informed,  or  the  value 
of  the  information  in  his  own  possession. 


MAPPING. 

Outline  maps  should  always  accompany  reports  of  special 
interest.     These  maybe  rapidly  sketched ;  and  no  matter 


MANUAL   OF    SIGNALS.  371 

how  roughly,  if'they  are  drawn  with  reasonable  accuracy  as 
to  scales  of  distance  and  correctness  of  direction,  and  clearly 
lettered,  they  \\  ill  be  of  value.  They  should  be  accompanied 
by  copious  descriptive  notes  and  references,  explanatory  of 
the  positions  endeavored  to  be  shown  upon  them:  as,  of 
the  exact  number  of  guns  where  a  battery  may  be  indi- 
cated; the  number  of  tents  in  encampments  shown;  the 
apparent  width  and  depth  of  streams,  when  water-courses 
are  mapped;  the  size  of  villages,  etc.  The  reports  should 
also  have  full  reference  to  the  accompanying  map,  and  both 
should  be  sent  as  soon  as  completed,  by  courier,  to  give 
more  full  information  than  can  be  transmitted  by  signals. 
A  map  can  be  drawn  with  very  little  care  and  labor  by 
almost  any  officer,  though"  he  may  be  unskilled  in  topo- 
graphic sketching. 

Useful  maps  of  any  portion  of  a  country  can  be  furnished 
by  "  tracing,"  as  follows.  The  officer,  going  into  any  section 
of  the  country,  procures  the  largest  and  best  map  of  that 
section  he  can;  the  more  clearly  showing  water-courses, 
roads,  and  topography,  the  better.  This  map  he  carries  with 
him  to  his  station,  with  a  number  of  sheets  of  thin  tissue- 
paper,  such  as  is  used  in  manifold  letter-writers.  This  is 
semi-transparent.  He  is  supplied  with  a  common  pencil, 
and  a  red  and  blue  pencil.  The  officer  having  selected  his 
station,  and  recognized  its  position  on  the  map,  places  over 
that  part  of  the  map  a  sheet  of  tracing-paper,  and  traces  on 
it  the  lines  of  roads,  woods,  etc.,  showing  through  from  the 
map  beneath,  and  writes  the  names  of  places,  or  points  to 
which  he  directs  attention,  being  sure  to  always  thus  in- 
scribe upon  his  transfer  map  the  names  of  some  well-known 
localities.  On  this  map  he  marks  the  position  of  the  enemy, 
so  far  as  it  is  known  to  him. 

In  one  corner  of  the  tracing-sheet  is  drawn  a  scale  of  dis- 
tances, copied  or  adapted  from  the  original  map,  and  the 
arrow  indicating  the  cornpasstpoints.     The  water-courses  are 


372  MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS. 

to  be  carefully  marked  out  and  outlined  with  the  blue  pencil. 
The  roads  are  traced  in  red. 

The  position  of  the  enemy's  camps,  lines,  redoubts,  etc., 
are  to  be  marked  with  the  lead-pencil ;  these  positions  be- 
ing carefully  located  upon  the  map  by  reference  to  the  scale 
of  distances.  Full  descriptive  notes  are  then  to  be  written 
upon  the  margin,  or  on  an  accompanying  paper,  and  the 
map  will  be  ready  to  be  forwarded.  These  maps  can  be 
quickly  made  in  the  field,  and  their  accuracy  renders  them 
useful. 

Maps  and  Sketches  from  Information. 

Maps  or  sketches  from  information,  are  maps  or  sketches 
drawn  from  descriptions  given  by  prisoners,  deserters,  or 
scouts,  and  are  for  the  purpose  of  setting  forth  clearly  what 
else  must  be  described  with  many  words. 

There  is  first  to  be  prepared  by  the  informant,  or 
sketched  by  his  direction,  a  rough  outline  or  trace  of  the 
work,  place,  or  thing  described.  He  is  then  interrogated 
as  to  all  particulars  in  relation  to  it.  The  answers  are  re- 
corded in  brief  upon  the  paper  bearing  the  outline — each 
answer  being  written  near  to  that  part  of  the  trace  to  which 
it  refers.  Thus  a  line  of  works  or  a  particular  work  being 
so  first  outlined,  the  informant  is  questioned  as  to  the  char- 
acter of  ground  on  which  each  part  stands ;  its  elevation,  as 
referred  to  a  river  or  some  known  point ;  the  character  of 
the  ground  in  front  of  each  part,  whether  it  is  cleared  or  en- 
cumbered, solid  or  soft,  wet  or  dry ;  the  distance  to  timber 
or  other  cover,  from  each  part  of  the  work ;  the  number  and 
calibre  of  gnns — how  placed — how  mounted  and  protected; 
the  structure  of  the  work — positions  of  bombproofs  and 
magazines,  size  and  contents — location  of  traverses  and  quar- 
ters— where  roads  and  what  roads  enter  it ;  and  so  for  ques- 
tions which  may  be  extended  in  proportion  as  the  informant 
is  intelligent  and  seems  reliable.     The  answers  thus  obtained 


MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS.  373 

afford  such  data,  that  if  the  outline  sheet  with  these  in- 
scribed is  placed  in  the  hands  of  one  used  to  topographic 
sketching,  a  complete  sketch  of  the  work,  its  contents  and 
surroundings,  may  be  made,  and  in  such  form  as  to  present 
at  a  glance  the  result  of  the  whole  interrogation. 

In  the  same  manner  may  be  had  plans  of  the  enemy's  ves- 
sels building  or  within  a  certain  harbor— of  the  forts  and 
batteries  covering  the  entrance — the  guns  bearing  upon  the 
channel — of  obstructions — of  torpedoes  and  their  location, 
manner  in  which  they  are  buoyed  or  to  be  exploded — of  the 
channel,  and  of  the  sailing  marks  used  by  the  enemy.  This 
knowledge,  embodied  in  maps  or  sketches  accompanying 
reports,  will  be  of  value. 


REPORTS. 

The  numerous  brief  reports  which  signal-officers  must 
make  of  their  observations  ought  to  be  carefully  drawn.  It 
should  be  the  aim  of  the  officer  to  indicate,  by  his  reports, 
the  thoroughness  and  deliberation  with  which  he  has  done 
his  duty.  The  report  should  state  concisely  and  clearly  what 
the  officer  sees,  and  what  he  thinks  he  sees,  and  he  should 
be  careful  to  state  his  uncertainty.  When  troops,  camps, 
trains,  etc.,  are  seen  and  reported  upon,  their  exact  bearing 
by  compass  from  some  village,  headquarters,  or  signal-sta- 
tion, certainly  known  to  the  general  to  whom  the  report  is 
sent,  must  be  given.  The  report  should  never  describe  any 
thing  as  seen  on  the  right  or  left ;  the  positions  of  things  or 
the  directions  of  movements  must  be  always  described  by 
compass  points.  General  terms,  as  large  forces,  small  forces, 
etc.,  ought  not  to  be  used.  The  exact  or  computed  number 
of  the  force  must  be  given. 

Signal-officers  should  particularly  study  to  make  their  re- 


374  MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS. 

ports  minute.  There  should  be  included  in  the  report  the 
distance  at  which  things  are  seen,  the  direction  by  compass  in 
which  they  are,  their  number,  their  relative  location  ;  every 
thing  that  can  tend  to  make  the  description  perfectly  intel- 
ligible to  a  person  who,  it  must  be  remembered,  may  have  no 
other  information  than  the  report  before  him,  and  perhaps  a 
map  with  which  to  compare  it.  It  must  be  considered  that 
the  reviewing  officer  has  probably  only  a  vague  idea  of  the 
place  at  which  the  reporting  officer  may  be,  and  that  he  does 
not  know  whether  that  officer  faces,  for  his  observations, 
east  or  west,  or  north  or  south. 

The  description  cannot  be  too  accurate.  The  report  should 
always  be  drawn  with  the  aid  of  a  map  of  the  country  ob- 
served, if  one  can  be  had.  The  study  of  such  a  map  will 
often  enable  a  report  to  be  made  correctly,  and  to  state  de- 
cidedly as  to  where  and  on  what  roads  forces  seen  must  be, 
when  this  would  be  otherwise  impossible.  Facts  gleaned 
from  citizens  should  be  given  in  the  report ;  and  every  state- 
ment that  the  experience  or  study  of  the  reporting  officer 
may  lead  him  to  think  can  aid  the  commanding  general  in 
forming  conclusions  concerning  the  condition  and  plans  of 
the  enemy,  ought  to  be  fully  made.  It  is  proper  for  the 
officer  to  state  briefly,  at  the  end  of  the  report,  what  it  seems 
to  him,  from  all  he  can  see  and  learn,  are  the  facts,  either  as 
to  the  position,  condition,  movements,  or  intentions  of  the 
enemy :  always  so  stating  these  opinions,  that  they  may  be 
known  to  be  his  individual  deductions  from  the  information 
he  has  obtained,  and  the  observations  he  has  made.  He 
should  do  this  without  timidity,  aware  that  his  report,  with 
his  deductions,  will  go  before  a  general  who,  probably,  has 
information  from  various  sources,  by  which  to  estimate  its 
correctness  and  its  value. 

To  make  his  reports  complete,  accurate,  and  valuable,  re- 
quires the  highest  attainments  of  the  reporter;  and  to  this 
end,  the  hours  of  leisure  which  come  so  often  on  stations  of 


MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS.  375 

observation  or  in  camp  should  be  devoted  to  the  reading  of 
works  on  general  reconnoissance,  the  practice  of  mapping 
and  sketching,  and  those  companion  studies  of  the  military 
art  which  go  to  make  the  education  of  a  skilful  officer. 


o 


Reports  from  Information. 

Reports  from  information  are  made  by  collecting  in  a 
report  all  the  information  gained  from  an  informant  or 
informants.  Reports  of  information  ought  to  be  divided 
into  heads  :  as,  strength  of  the  enemy — condition — organ- 
ization— discipline — supplies — plans,  etc.  The  matter  under 
each  head  ought  to  have  bearing  on  that  alone. 

When  it  is  the  duty  of  a  chief  signal-officer  to  collect  in- 
formation throughout  a  department — and  this  ought  always 
to  fall  within  his  province — orders  should  issue  by  which  an 
officer  at  each  post  in  the  command  is  made  a  correspondent, 
and  printed  forms  of  questions  be  supplied  by  which  differ- 
ent informants  coming  in  at  different  posts  may  be  interro- 
gated. The  answers  everywhere,  being  thus  to  the  same 
queries,  are  capable  of  comparison  and  collation,  to  give 
connected  information. 

There  is  appended  a  copy  of  the  order  issued,  and  the 
form  of  interrogation  adopted,  during  the  war,  in  the  mili- 
tary division  of  West  Mississippi.  In  this  division,  con- 
densed reports  of  information  were  required  to  be  rendered 
by  an  officer  detailed  at  each  post,  to  the  chief  signal-officer, 
five  times  in  each  month.  These  reports  were  collated  at 
general  headquarters,  for  the  information  of  the  general 
commanding. 

Headquarters  Military  Division  of  West  Mississippi,  I 
New  Orleans,  La.,  June  27,  1S64.  » 

Sir — I  have  the  honor  to  forward,  by  direction  of  the  commanding 
general,  the  circular  herewith,  and  to  request  that  the  duty  of  pro- 
curing, collating,  and  forwarding  the  information  referred  to  therein, 


376  MANUAL  OF  SIGNALS. 

be  assigned  to  some  particular  officer  at  each  post  and  station  of  your 
command,  as  a  part  of  his  regular  duty ;  and  that  the  name  of  this 
officer  be  reported  at  once  to  the  Chief  Signal  Officer  at  these  head- 
quarters. 

Should  it  become  necessary  at  any  time  to  relieve  the  officer  in 
charge  of  this  duty,  his  duties  in  this  respect  to  be,  prior  to  his  relief, 
assigned  to  some  other  officer,  and  a  copy  of  the  order  making  the 
assignment  to  be  forwarded  to  tbese  headquarters. 

The  reports  of  information  to  be  collated  and  to  be  forwarded  on 
the  6th,  12th,  18th,  24th,  and  30th  days  of  each  month,  except  in  cases 
of  such  information  as  may  seem  of  instant  importance,  when  it  is 
desired  that  the  report  be  forwarded  as  soon  as  it  is  received. 

These  reports  will  be  addressed,  "  Colonel  Albert  J.  Myer,  Chief 
Signal  Officer,  Headquarters  Military  Division  of  the  West  Mississippi, 
New  Orleans,  La." 

I  am  directed  further  to  ask  that  the  substance  of  this  communica- 
tion be  given  as  an  instruction  to  each  brigade  commander  of  your 
command,  and  that  copies  be  furnished  for  the  guidance  of  the  officer 
at  each  station,  whence  reports  will  be  made.  It  is  the  object  of  this 
request  to  place  the  Chief  Signal  Officer  at  these  headquarters  in  di- 
rect communication  with  the  officers  whom  you  may  assign  to  this 
duty,  with  as  little  delay  as  is  practicable. 
I  am,  sir,  very  respectfully, 

Your  obedient  servant, 
By  order :  Albert  J.  Myer, 

Colonel  and  Chief  Signal  Officer. 


Headquarters  Military  Division  op  the  West  Mississippi,  I 
Vicksburg,  Miss.,  May  30,  1864.  • 

Deserters,  refugees,  and  other  persons  coming  in  at  any  military 
post  in  the  Division  of  West  Mississippi,  or  at  any  of  the  posts  on 
the  east  bank  of  the  Mississippi  River,  will  be  carefully  examined  by 
a  discreet  officer,  and  the  information  obtained  from  them  compared 
and  collated  with  that  derived  from  scouts  and  other  sources,  and  re- 
ported direct  to  the  "  Chief  Signal  Officer,"  at  the  headquarters  of  this 
Division,  Natchez,  Mississippi.  Where  this  information  is  of  imme- 
diate interest  to  any  other  commander,  a  copy  of  the  report  will  be 
sent  direct  to  that  commander.  The  information  thus  obtained  will 
be  communicated   only   to   division,   department,  or   district  com- 


MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS.  '.'> ,  , 

manders,  except  in  the  case  of  subordinate  commanders  specially 
interested,  and  will  be  confidential. 

By  order  of  Major-General  E.  R.  S.  Canby. 
Official. 

C.  T.  Christensen, 
Major  and  Assistant  Adjutant-General. 

[circular.] 

The  following  questions  are  furnished  for  the  guidance  of  officers 
charged  with  the  duty  of  collecting  and  collating  information  at  the 
different  posts  within  the  Military  Division  of  the  West  Mississippi; 
the  answer  to  each  question  will  be  plainly  written  in  the  blanks 
appropriated  for  each,  and  the  printed  forms  thus  filled  out,  together 
with  such  tracings  and  drawings  as  the  officer  can  obtain,  and  such 
general  report  as  he  may  be  able  to  make,  will  be  forwarded  to  the 
"  Office  of  the  Chief  Signal  Officer,  Headquarters  Military  Division 
of  the  West  Mississippi,  New  Orleans,  La.,"  on  the  Gth,  12th,  18th, 
24th,  and  30th  days  of  each  month : 

Name?  Rank?  Regiment?  Brigade?  Division?  Corps?  Cap- 
tarn  of  company  ?  How  many  companies  in  regiment,  (full  or  small  ?) 
Colonel  of  regiment?  What  other  colonels  in  your  brigade?  How 
many  regiments  in  your  brigade  ?  General  of  brigade  ?  What  other 
brigadier-general's  in  division?  How  many  brigades  in  division? 
How  many  regiments  in  each  brigade  ?  Where  is  the  headquarters  of 
your  regiment?  Where  is  headquarters  of  brigade?  Where  is  head- 
quarters of  division  ?  Where  is  general  headquarters  ?  Where  did  you 
encamp  last  night  ?  Where  night  before  ?  Where  night  before  that  ? 
Where  is  or  was  general,  (each  general  ?)  Where  last  heard  from  ? 
How  heard  from?  How  many  men  with  him ?  What  were  the  ru- 
mors and  reports?  How  did  you  hear  each?  Where  wTas  your  di- 
vision, brigade,  regiment,  and  company  going?  When?  How  did 
your  hear  it  ?  How  did  you  come  within  the  lines  ?  How  many  were 
in  your  party  ?  How  many  were  taken  ?  Were  you  scouts  ?  Where 
did  your  regiment  encamp  last  night?  Where  the  night  before?  Where 
the  night  before  that?    Where  is  (each  regiment  of  your  brigade  ?) 

Questions  as  to  Character  of  the  Country,  Condition  of 
Crops  and  Forage,  Condition  of  the  People. — Where— Depot 
of  supplies?     Depot  of  ordnance?     Condition  of  railroads  and 

telegraphs  ? 


378  MANUAL  OF  SIGNALS. 

Op  Works. — Number  of  guns ?  Calibre  and  kinds  ?  Height  and 
thickness  of  ramparts  ?  How  many  ?  Depth  of  ditch  ?  Wet  or 
dry  ?  Where  are  the  magazines  ?  How  made  ?  Where  are  the 
bombproofs?  How  made?  How  large?  What  kind  of  ground  in 
front  of  works  ?  Is  it  cleared  ?  How  much  slashed  ?  Is  it  swampy  ? 
AVet  or  dry?  How  far  from  the  works  are  the  woods?  In  what 
direction  ?  What  kind  of  woods  are  they  ?  What  kind  of  roads  lead 
into  the  forts?  What  are  they?  What  roads  pass  it?  Describe 
them.  Is  ground  sandy  or  clay  ?  Is  ground  high  or  low  ?  How  do 
they  get  water?  from  wells,  or  springs,  or  river?  Can  you  draw  the 
trace  on  paper  ?  Mark  down  the  guns,  traverses,  bombproofs,  wells, 
&c.  What  kind  of  carriages?  Any  pivots?  Have  they  large  or 
small  wheels  ?  Are  the  guns  "  en  barbette  ?"  Are  they  field-pieces, 
or  guns  of  position  ?  Are  the  works  entirely  inclosed,  or  are  they 
built  like  works  for  field-pieces,  with  entrance  for  battery  to  be  driven 
in?  Have  you  ever  been  in  magazine?  Is  it  full?  How  many 
rounds  to  a  gun  ?  Commissary  stores  in  fort — much  or  little — quality 
and  kind  ?  Your  regiment  has  all  same  kind  of  guns  ?  What  kind  ? 
How  many  batteries  or  pieces  in  your  brigade  ?  Who  commands 
artillery  ?  Character  of  guns  ?  How  much  cavalry  in  your  brigade  ? 
How  many  regiments  ?  How  much  in  division  ?  How  armed  ? 
Where  comes  from  ?     What  rations  do  you  get  ?    Where  from  ? 

Naval  Forces. — Ships  or  vessels— how  many  ?  Steam  or  sail- 
ing ?  Side- wheel  or  screw  ?  Built  of  iron,  or  altered  ?  How  old  ? 
How  strengthened  on  inside?  by  wood  or  iron?  How  much  water 
does  she  draw,  all  on  board  ?  What  kind  ofAvood  is  she  built  of, 
pine  or  oak?  How  long  was  she  building?  How  long  is  whole 
vessel?  How  wide?  How  deep?  How  high  above  the  water? 
How  long  is  casemate?  How  wide?  How  high?  How  built? 
How  iron-clad?  What  size  are  plates?  How  long?  How  wide? 
How  thick?  How  put  on?  What  kind  of  iron?  How  thick  is 
wood-work  ?  How  built  ?  What  kind  ?  Pine  or  oak  ?  When  and 
where  was  she  plated  ?  How  many  ports  ?  Where  are  they  ?  Bow 
ports,  broadside  ports?  How  are  port  shutters  arranged?  How 
large  are  ports?  How  high  above  water-line?  Do  the  port  shutters 
swing  from  top  or  side  of  ports?  Which  side?  Do  they  slide  up 
and  down  in  grooves?  How  thick  are  they?  How  are  they  made? 
How  thick  is  plating  on  the  bow  ?  How  thick  on  sides  ?  How  thick 
astern?  What  is  her  weak  point?  Where  her  strongest?  Is  her 
deck  plated  ?    How  ?    What  kind  of  iron  ?    How  thick  ?    How  se- 


MANUAL  OF  SIGNALS.  379 

cured?  "What  are  the  means  of  getting  on  deck?  How  secured? 
How  is  she  defended  from  boarders?  How  many  smokestacks? 
Where  situated?  Has  she  a  pilot-house  ?  Where  is  it?  How  pro- 
tected? How  many  boilers?  New  or  old?  Where  are  they  ?  How 
large?  How  protected?  "What  kind  of  engines,  new  or  altered? 
What  power?  High  or  low  pressure?  If  old  engines,  how  arc  they 
altered  for  application  of  the  propeller?  How  many  pounds  of 
steam?  What  ventilation  has  she?  How  many  guns  ?  Are  they 
the  same  kind?  What  are  their  calibre?  "Where  is  her  magazine? 
Have  you  ever  been  in  it?  How  much  ammunition  has  she  on  board  ? 
"What  kinds?  Where  was  her  ammunition  made?  When  was  she 
supplied  last  ?  How  large  is  her  crew  ?  What  nationalities  ?  What 
is  the  discipline?  Is  there  any  disaffection  among  them?  Where 
is  her  wheel?  How  protected?  Where  is  her  rudder?  How  far 
underwater?  How  is  it  managed?  Ropes  or  chains  ?  Where  do 
these  pass?  Has  she  a  ram?  What  kind?  Describe  the  shape? 
How  long?  How  made?  How  attached  to  the  bow?  How  far 
underwater?  Is  it  iron-clad?  What  is  her  best  speed  ?  Her  ordi- 
nary speed?  Does  she  answer  her  helm  readily?  Has  she  any 
tenders?  How  many?  What  kind?  Who  commands  her?  Did 
he  belong  to  the  old  Navy  ?  Has  he  had  previous  experience  ?  Give 
a  list  of  the  officers'  names  on  board  ?  What  are  the  general  ex- 
pectations regarding  her?  Does  she  intend  to  attack,  or  act  on  the 
defensive?  Will  she  act  alone  or  in  concert  with  other  vessels? 
What  other  vessels  will  act  with  her?  Describe  them  (as  above). 
What  is  her  plan?  How  many  masts?  Are  they  intended  for 
sails  9    Where  are  they  situated  ? 

Unfinished  Vessels. — Are  there  any  unfinished  vessels?  Are 
they  new  or  being  altered?  Where  are  they  being  constructed? 
When  were  they  commenced  ?  Are  they  working  on  them  now  ? 
How  many  workmen  are  employed?  Of  what  kind  of  timber  is 
she  being  built?  Will  they  have  rams?  Are  the  rams  attached  to 
the  bows  before  launching  ?  Are  they  to  be  iron-clad  ?  Where  do 
they  get  the  iron?  What  kind  of  iron  is  to  be  used?  How  thick 
will  be  the  plates?  How  wide?  How  long?  Are  these  vessels 
screws  or  side-wheelers  ?  Where  do  they  get  their  engines  ?  What 
kind  of  engines  are  they  ?  Where  are  they  made  ?  Where  repaired  ? 
What  is  the  shape  of  these  vessels  ?  How  long  ?  How  wide  ?  How 
deep?  How  many  guns  will  they  carry?  How  much  water  will 
they  draw?    How  thick  will  be  the  wood-work  on  the  bow?    On 


380  MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS. 

the  sides  ?  On  the  stern  ?  How  are  they  to  be  strengthened  inside  ? 
How  many  boilers  will  they  have?  Old  or  new?  How  large? 
Where  will  they  be  placed  ?  How  protected  ?  Where  will  the  en- 
gines be  placed  ?  How  protected  ?  Can  you  draw  a  trace  of  these 
vessels  ? 

Induce  the  informant  to  draw  a  trace  of  such  vessels  and  other 
objects  as  he  describes,  which  will  be  sent  with  the  report  to  this 
office. 

In  addition  to  these  reports  at  stated  intervals,  which 
relate  rather  to  the  general  military  condition,  a  daily  report 
of  information  should  be  made  to  the  commanding  general; 
and  special  reports  should  be  prepared  as  often  as  any  espe- 
cial circumstances  require  them.  The  retained  copies  of 
these  reports  afford  at  once  a  kind  of  history  of  the  war  and 
of  the  information  on  which  a  general  has  acted. 


» 


Transmission  of  Reports. 

It  is  essential  that  the  reports  of  signal-officers  should  be 
transmitted  with  rapidity.  To  gain  time  should  be  a  chief 
consideration.  The  reports  are  generally  of  a  character  re- 
lating to  facts  actually  transpiring,  and  if  they  are  not 
known  to  the  proper  authorities  at  once,  they  are  useless. 
For  this  reason,  minute  arrangements  ought  always 'to  be 
made  beforehand,  if  possible,  that  the  reports  may  come  at 
once,  by  signals  or  by  telegraph,  from  the  post  of  observa- 
tion to  the  headquarters  of  the  general  commanding.  The 
reporting  officer  must  also,  at  his  discretion,  dispatch 
written  reports,  with  maps,  giving  full  information.  There 
should  never  be  delay.  The  report  should  go  by  messenger 
at  any  time,  rather  than  incur  the  risk  of  losing  value  by 
detention.  When,  as  sometimes  happens  on  the  field  of 
battle,  or  in  minor  advances,  etc.,  the  report  is  of  local  im- 
portance only,  and  action  on  it  would  probably  be  taken  by 
immediate   commanders,  copies  of  the  report  ought  to  be 


MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS.  381 

sent  quickly  to  the  nearest  regimental,  brigade,  division, 
and  corps  commanders.  Care  must  be  taken  to  sign  the, 
report  clearly,  with  the  name  and  rank  of  the  sender.  A 
copy  of  each  report  should  be  kept.  The  chief  signal-officer 
of  the  army  corps,  to  which  the  reporting-officer  is  attached, 
and  the  chief  signal-officer  of  the  army  at  general  head- 
quarters,  must  be  furnished  daily  with  copies  of  all  reports, 
for  the  information  of  the  generals  commanding.  It  is  the 
duty  of  these  officers  to  make,  every  evening,  a  consolidated 
report  from  all  the  detached  reports  which  have  reached 
them,  of  all  information  of  any  kind  which  has  been  received 
at  their  offices  during  the  day:  the  chiefs  with  the  corps 
basing  their  reports  on  those  of  their  subordinate  officers, 
and  the  chief  at  general  headquarters  consolidating  for  his 
reports  those  received  from  the  chiefs  of  corps.  The  corps 
chief  submits  his  report  to  the  corps  commander,  and  sends 
a  copy  to  general  headquarters.  The  chief  with  the  army 
submits  his  own  to  the  chief  of  staff",  or  to  the  general  com- 
manding. Chief  signal-officers,  in  submitting  a  report,  give 
their  views  in  reference  to  the  accuracy  of  its  parts;  the 
reliability  of  the  reporting  officer;  the  concurrence  of  state- 
ments coming  from  officers  observing  at  different  parts  of 
the  line  ;  the  opportunities  for  correct  observation  had  at 
different  signal-stations :  and  they  state  facts  within  their 
knowledge,  by  which  the  value  of  the  report  may  be 
judged. 

The  consolidated  report  from  each  chief  signal-officer  of 
corps  should  be  sent  in  to  general  headquarters  each  day, 
before  the  chief  signal-officer  of  the  army  makes  his  general 
report ;  and  it  should  be  accompanied  by  outline  maps,  if 
possible.  In  this  manner,  the  general  commanding  has 
before  him,  each  night,  a  summary  of  all  the  information 
gained  by  the  signal  corps  during  the  day,  and  can  estimate 
its  value  by  comparison  with  information  from  other 
branches  of  the  service. 


382  MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS. 


ORIGIN  AND  GENERAL  USES  OF  SIGNALS. 

Every  intelligible  vrord,  sound,  or  motion  is  a  signal.  If, 
at  the  creation,  our  first  parents  were  not  endowed  with  a 
complete  language,  their  first  attempts  at  conversation  must 
have  been  by  simple  codes  of  signs  and  sounds.  The  sounds 
uttered  by  the  beasts  of  the  field,  or  by  the  birds  of  the 
air,  iiitelliafible  to  them,  are  their  signals  and  their  language. 
To  say  of  a  well-tamed  brute,  as  we  sometimes  do,  "  it  can 
do  all  but  talk,"  is  an  error  in  terms.  It  conveys  ideas  in  its 
own  language-signals,  and,  for  its  kind,  as  readily  as  we,  who, , 
more  gifted,  have  more  elaborate  word-signals. 

There  is  no  difficulty  in  understanding  the  warning  con- 
veved  in  the  growl  of  a  good  watch-dog,  or  the  affectionate 
speech  of  a  horse  at  the  sight  of  a  coming  master;  and  they 
recognize  our  signals  of  speech,  and  cultivate  the  memory 
of  them,  until  they  understand  our  words  of  praise,  of  threat- 
ening, and  of  command,  as  do  human  beings.  So  birds  and 
beasts  call  and  warn  and  soothe  each  other  in  their  language. 
A  hen,  with  her  brood  of  chickens,  affords  us  an  instance. 
We  hear  the  signals — a  language — the  call  and  the  reply, 
expressions  of  pleasure,  of  warning,  of  condolence. 

Speech — articulated  sound  having  meaning— is  producible 
by  things  inanimate  as  by  the  animate. 

We  have  tried  to  show  that  skilful  officers  can  make 
steamships  converse  by  their  steam-whistles ;  and  at  their 
first  meeting  in  codes  of  signals — of  whatever  style,  and  in 
language  of  whatever  nationality.  Electric  telegraphic  in- 
struments daily  deliver  addresses  on  every  imaginable  sub- 
ject. A  speaking  automaton,  a  thing  of  wood  and  springs, 
is  only  a  higher  order  of  signal-machine.  If  there  seems 
any  thing  of  novelty  in  these  statements,  it  is  due  to  our 
habit  of  regarding  speech  as  something  difficult,  and  as  an 
especial  attribute  of  humanity. 


MANUAL  OF   SIGNALS.  383 

Our  own  language  is  the  elaborated  code  of  signals  we 
have  chosen  to  adopt,  and  in  which  we  perfect  ourselves,  to 
express  our  ideas.     It  is  evident  we  can,  if  we  so  convene, 

express  these  ideas  by  any  other  code  of  signals,  The  ori- 
gin of  signals  was  at  the  origin  of  language. 

With  the  first  men  it  was,  possibly,  as  with  children 
learning  to  talk.  First  there  are  the  few  simple  sounds,  or 
speech-signals,  by  which  the  child  expresses  its  limited  wants, 
and  which  are  understandable  by  those  much  associated  with 
it  only;  then  are  daily  new  wants,  and  new  expressions 
learned  from  those  surrounding  are  added  to  signify  those 
wants.  Children  learn  to  talk  more  rapidly  when  surrounded 
by  talking  children.  Each  contributes,  from  its  store,  lan- 
guage-signals to  the  information  of  the  other.  Afterward, 
as  the  wants  increase  and  memory  grows  stronger,  comes  the 
incessant  practice  of  language-signals — the  constant  commu- 
nication with  others — the  study  for  years  of  their  use  and 
meaning,  the  writing  of  them  to  be  read  by  others,  and  the 
investigation  of  those  which,  more  rare,  are  kept  recorded 
in  books  and  dictionaries,  until,  in  time,  a  certain  mastery  of 
the  language  is  acquired.  Then  comes  the  study  of  other 
codes  of  word-signals — other  languages  ;  and  the  pupil  finds 
the  same  meanings  conveyed  by  different  speech-signals,  in 
the  differing  forms  and  expressions  of  the  different  languages. 

So  with  men.  First,  there  were,  perhaps,  a  few  simple 
sounds  of  voice,  to  indicate  the  scanty  wants  of  the  few  then 
on  earth,  and  these  were  understood  among  those  few  from 
their  daily  association.  These  were,  perhaps,  but  single 
sounds,  not  sounds  articulated,  and  the  speech  was  possibly 
completed  by  physical  signs.  Then,  day  by  day,  came  the 
gradual  addition  of  new  language-signals  to  express  new 
ideas.  The  simple  sounds — monosyllables — exhausted,  it 
was  necessary  to  join  together  two  or  more  sounds  in  one 
expression  to  signify  these  ideas,  and  the  single  sounds  so 
became  jointed  or  articulated,  and  these  were  words. 


38-i  MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS. 

With  other  wants  of  conversation,  these  words  were 
placed  together  with  the  significations  of  nouns  and  verbs, 
etc. ;  thus  were  formed  sentences.  With  larger  populations, 
their  wants,  their  pleasures,  and  their  duties,  was  formed  a 
complete  spoken  language. 

Such  languages  are  to-day  found  with  many  tribes  which 
keep  no  written  records,  and  whose  speech  is  of  a  few 
spoken  words,  eked  out  by  physical  signs. 

Afterward  came  the  want  of  a  written  language.  Per- 
haps some  early  hunter  found  he  could  state  the  number  of 
his  party  by  counting  off  or  laying  aside  an  arrow  for  each 
hunter;  and  as  the  arrow  moves  in  the  direction  in  which  is 
placed  its  head,  he  could  so  tell  those  to  come  after  by 
placing  in  the  path  a  number  of  arrows — say  live,  for  instance, 
pointing  in  a  certain  course — that  by  that  path,  and  moving 
in  that  course,  had  passed  five  arrow-bearers  or  hunters. 

Then  would  come  very  naturally  afterward,  for  a  similar 
purpose,  and  to  have  a  similar  meaning,  the  notching  of  the 
number  of  hunters,  a  notch  being  made  for  each  on  the 
shaft  of  a  single  arrow  rightly  placed.  Then,  by  and  by, 
for  convenience,  would  come  the  use  of  a  number  of  arrow- 
heads alone,  pointing  in  the  proper  course,  or  the  use  of  a 
single  arrow-head  with  a  number  of  marks  upon  it.  Then, 
perhaps,  for  the  next  step,  a  rude  drawing  of  the  arrow- 
heads on  rocks  or  on  the  bark  of  trees,  or  on  skins,  to  show 
the  number  of  hunters  and  the  direction  in  which  they  had 
eone  ;  and  this  would  be  naturally  enough  accompanied  by 
some  resemblance  of  the  animal  the  hunters  had  followed. 
This  is  word-picturing,  as  it  is  practised  now  by  the  Indians 
of  the  western  prairies,  who  give  their  pictured  histories  of 
hunts  and  battles — written  histories  to  them — with  sufficient 
data  to  make  them  a  record,  in  sketches  on  the  walls  of  caves, 
on  pieces  of  bark,  and  on  the  skins  of  animals. 

An  example  of  the  skill  attained  by  practice  in  this  art  is 


MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS. 


3S5 


given  in  the  following  dispatch,  said   to  have  been  sent 
by  a   tribe    of    North    American    Indians,   who    assisted 

the    French   forces    during   the   war   between    France   and 


England 


4>  4>  <P     f    $  $  # 

4>  4?   $  <j)  c*>    c£ 


<Si 


-—-■■- 


lt?[  lilt  ifft  fift  i  i  rfi 


$  4>  frffi 


*  *  4> 


$  #  * 


)  9 


—>-=>—> 


The  following  divisions  explain  those  on  the  plate : 

1st.  Each  of  these  forms  represents  the  number  ten.  They  all  sig- 
nify that  eighteen  times  ten,  or  one  hundred  and  eighty,  warriors 
took  up  the  hatchet,  or  declared  war,  in  favor  of  the  French,  which 
is  represented  by  the  hatchet  placed  over  the  arms  of  France. 

2d.  They  departed  from  Montreal,  represented  by  a  bird  just 
taking  wing  from  the  top  of  a  mountain.  The  moon  and  the  buck 
show  the  time  to  have  been  in  the  first  quarter  of  the  buck-moon, 
answering  to  July. 

3d.  They  went  by  water,  signified  by  the  canoe.     The  number  of 

17 


386  MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS. 

huts,  such  as  they  raise  to  pass  the  night  in,  shows  they  were  twenty- 
one  days  on  their  passage. 

4th.  Then  they  came  on  shore,  and  travelled  seven  days,  repre- 
sented by  the  foot  and  the  seven  huts. 

5th.  When  they  arrived  near  the  habitations  of  their  enemies,  at 
sunrise — shown  by  the  sun  being  to  the  eastward  of  them,  beginning, 
as  they  think,  its  daily  course — there  they  lay  in  wait  three  days,  repre- 
sented by  the  hand  pointing,  and  the  three  huts. 

6th.  After  which  they  surprised  their  enemies,  in  number  twelve 
times  ten,  or  one  hundred  and  twenty.  The  man  asleep  shows  how 
they  surprised  them,  and  the  hole  in  the  top  of  the  building  is  sup- 
posed to  signify  that  they  broke  into  some  of  the  habitations  in  this 
manner. 

7th.  They  killed  with  the  club  eleven  of  their  enemies,  and  took  five 
prisoners— the  former  represented  by  the  club  and  the  eleven  heads, 
the  latter  by  the  little  figures  on  the  pedestals. 

8th.  They  lost  nine  of  their  own  men  in  the  action — represented  by 
the  nine  heads  within  the  bow,  which  is  the  emblem  of  honor  among 
the  Indians — but  had  none  taken  prisoners,  a  circumstance  they  lay 
great  weight  on,  shown  by  all  the  pedestals  being  empty. 

9th.  Tne  heads  of  the  arrows  pointing  opposite  ways  represent  the 
battle. 

10th.  The  heads  of  the  arrows  all  pointing  the  same  way  signify 
the  flight  of  the  enemy,  followed  by  the  arrows  of  the  victors. 

With  the  common  and  every-day  use  of  picture-writings 
a  few  marks  hastily  made  would  gradually  come  to  be  un- 
derstood for  any  determinate  figure,  as  that  of  an  animal. 
These  are  hieroglyphs,  and  the  picture-writing  would  be- 
come a  writing  of  hieroglyphs. 

With  many  records,  there  would  come  the  writer's  skill 
in  this  art,  and  persons  whose  time  was  devoted  to  improve 
the  style  and  compactness  of  each  hieroglyph.  The  art  of 
picture-writing  would  be  thus  perfected.  But  the  hiero- 
glyphic pictures  would  still  express  only  completed  ideas. 
So  ingenuity  would  be  taxed  to  satisfy  the  want — each  day 
increasing — to  be  able  to  write  down,  word  by  word,  spoken 
language,  and  to  be  able  to  convey,  on  record  (in  writing), 


MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS.  387 

i 

the  precise  words,  with  all  their  shades  of  meaning,  it  was 

-wished  to  note  as  having  been  spoken,  or  to  transmit,  in  a 
written  message.  So  then  at  last,  perhaps,  some  scholar  or 
writer  used  to  analyzing  hieroglyphs,  to  find  the  meanings 
they  convey,  by  studying  the  elementary  marks  of  which 

each  is  formed,  would  analyze  spoken  words,  having  in  view- 
to  write  down  a  sign  for  each  word.  lie  recognizes  that 
all  spoken  words  are  only  certain  simple  sounds  articulated 
(joined),  devises  a  hieroglyph  or  written  sign  for  each 
sound,  writes  down  these  signs  (the  letters),  and  a  written 
alphabet  is  formed. 

To  show  what  sounds  are  joined  together  to  form  an 
articulated  word,  these  signs  are  written,  one  after  another, 
joined  together,  and  written  language  is  attained. 

The  form  of  the  letter  S,  representing  the  snake,     ^C 

whose  hissing  is  the  letter's  sound,  is  perhaps  as  apt  an 
illustration  as  can  be  selected.  This  snake  character  can 
be  traced  in  the  form  of  this  letter  in  the  alphabets  of  many 
languages.     Tims,  the  Greek  2  can  be  easily  imagined  as  a 

serpent  hissing  and  about  to  strike.   S» 

Another  example  of  the  process  by  which  hieroglyphic 
pictures  may  become  characters  is  had  in  the  numeral  let- 
ters. These  indicate  the  digits  or  lingers,  and  we  recognize 
the  pictured  "one  finger,  I,  one,"  "two  fingers,  II,  two," 
and  so  to  "five  fingers,  the  hand  or  V,"  which  represents 
the  outline  of  the  thumb  and  little  linger  of  the  outspread 
hand — the  thumb-mark  thicker  than  that  for  the  little 
finger.  Then  "a  hand  and  one  finger,  VI,  six,"  and  so 
to  "two  hands,  VV,  ten,  or  X,"  the  little  finger-mark  of 
one  hand  joining  and  crossing  the  thumb-mark  of  the  sec- 
ond. 

The  rude  efforts  which  attended  the  first  attempts  at  tele- 


388  MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS. 

graphing  are  subjects  of  study  as  interesting  as  that  by 
which  may  be  traced  the  origin  of  language  for  conversa- 
tional uses. 

Oral  and  written  language  perfected,  there  came  the  want 
of  a  perfected  telegraphy,  or  the  power  to  talk  and  write  at 
a  greater  distance  than  the  voice  could  be  heard,  and  when 
written  messages  either  could  not  be  sent,  or  not  with  suffi- 
cient rapidity. 

It  was  needed  to  so  devise  language-signals  that  they 
might  be  made  intelligible  at  great  distances. 

A  rude  telegraphy  by  signs  addressed  to  the  eye,  numer- 
ous, and   largely  used  to  help  out  the  then  imperfect  lan- 
guage, must  have  existed  from  the  time  the  earth  was  in- 
habited.    Extensive  codes  of  this  kind  are  now  in  general 
use  among  the  Western  Indians.     The  following  extract  is 
from  General  Marcy's  "  Life  on  the  Border."     *     *     *     * 
"  Their  language  is  verbal  and  pantomimic.    The  former  con- 
sists of  a  very  limited  number  of  words,  some  of  which  are 
common  to  all  the  prairie  tribes.     The  latter  is  used   and 
understood  with  great  facility  and  accuracy  by  all  the  tribes 
from  the  Gila  to  the   Columbia,  the  motions  and   sii?ns  to 
express  ideas  being  common  to  all.    This  pantomimic  vocab- 
ulary, which  is  exceedingly  graceful  and  significant,  when 
oral  communication  is  impracticable,  constitutes  the  court 
language  of  the  Plains  ;  and  what  was  a  fact  of  much  aston- 
ishment to  me,  I  discovered  that  it  was  nearly  the  same  as 
that  practised  by  the  mutes  in  one  of  our  deaf  and  dumb 
institutions  that  I  visited.     For  example,  there  were  some 
five  or  six  boys  directed  to  take  their  places  at  the  black- 
boards and  interpret  what  I  proposed  to  say.     I  then,  by 
pantomimic  signs,  told  them  that  I  went  on  a  buffalo  hunt, 
saw  a  herd,  chased  them  on  horseback,  fired  my  gun  and 
killed  one,  cut  it  up,  ate  some  of  the  meat,  and  went  to 
sleep — every  word  of  which  was  written  down  upon   the 
blackboard  by  each  boy  as  rapidly  as  the  signs  were  made, 


MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS.  389 

excepting  that  all  made  the  common  mistake  of  taking  the 
buffalo  for  deer." 

The  primary  signs  and  sounds  were  perhaps  like  the 
"  Symphenomena"  described  by  Dr.  Francis  Lieber,  in- 
stinctive to  all  human  beings. 

Meanings  have  been  given  to  descriptive  signs  in  the 
same  manner  that  meanings  have  attached  to  sounds  of 
words.  Such  signs  would  be  used  also  to  convey  meanings 
at  short  distances.  • 

In  like  manner  would  be  adopted  the  raising  of  fires  to 
convey  signals  of  danger,  or  other  information,  b\r  night, 
ami  the  showing  clouds  of  smoke  by  day;  or  the  hoisting 
into  the  air  of  shields,  or  spears,  or  flags,  or  articles  of 
clothing,  and  waving  or  putting  them  in  motion  to  make 
them  more  visible,  to  attract  attention,  to  indicate  direction, 
or  to  give  warnings.  The  signals  by  these  plans  had  always 
arbitrary  meanings,  ami  were  for  limited  uses  only. 

With  later  civilization  came  the  need  of  systematized 
codes.  War  brought  with  it  the  necessity  for  telegraphic 
communication  in  armies. 

Then  were  the  first  concerted  plans.  Then  we  read  of 
lines  of  signal-tires;  of  long  lines  of  men  placed  nearly 
together,  who  shouted  messages  each  to  the  other,  or  who 
repeated,  each  in  turn,  the  motions  made  by  the  other;  of 
ingeniously  contrived  codes  of  messages,  and  of  appliances 
by  which  to  recognize  the  proper  messages.  There  were 
attempts  to  construct  rude  semaphores.  The  plans  were 
not  yet  formed  for  the  transmission  of  letters  and  words, 
and  few  and  preconcerted  messages  only  were  indicated.  It 
was  with  a  high  civilization  only  that  there  came  the  idea 
of  a  telegraphy  which  could  convey  the  phrases  of  a  lan- 
guage. It  was  not  conceivable  without  a  written  lan- 
guage. 

It  is  interesting,  looking  back  now,  to  study  the  perfec- 
tion of  the  plans  devised  by  the   ancients,  and  to  consider 


300  MANUAL  OF   SIGNALS. 

how  closely  the  rules  underlying  some  of  those  plans  and 
their  working  approximate  the  rules  of  the  present  day. 

The  most  accurate  accounts  of  signalling  with  armies,  and 
of  plans,  which  we  know  were  practicable  and  constantly 
practised,  are  those  found  in  the  writings  of  the  scholar  and 
general,  Polybius. 

The  first  record  of  a  signal  corps,  a  regular  organization 
of  the  armies  of  that  day,  comes  down  to  us  in  the  writings 
of  that  general,  and  in  the  histories  of  the  wars  in  which  he 
served.  The  devices  of  the  army-signalling  of  that  time — ■ 
about  two  hundred  and  sixty  years  before  Christ — seem  to 
have  been  the  invention  of  that  general.  They  are  traceable, 
perhaps,  to  a  more  remote  antiquity.  In  the  history  of 
ancient  wars,  there  are  sentences  which  seem  to  indicate 
so  general  a  use  of  signals  in  armies,  that  this  is  possible. 
Polybius  gives  the  credit  of  the  invention  to  Cleoxenes 
or  Democritus,  and  claims  only  to  have  perfected  the  plans 
himself. 

To  us,  however,  Polybius  stands  as  the  inventor  and  the 
first  officer  who  has  given  us  an  intelligible  record  of  the 
services  of  a  signal-corps  of  an  army.  This  general  arranged 
the  letters  of  the  Greek  alphabet  in  five  columns.  (See 
page  123.) 

To  illustrate  with  the  English  alphabet,  thus  : — 

Columns...  1st.         2d.         3d.         4th.         5th. 

Letters,  1st A  F  K  P  U 

2d B 

3d C 

"       4th D 

"       5th E 


The  apparatus  (Plate  XV,  Fig.  8)  was  cumbersome  and 
immovable.       For   field-work,   the  letters    were    displayed 


G 

L 

Q 

V 

II 

M 

R 

W 

I 

N 

S 

X 

J 

0 

T 

Y 
Z 

MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS.  391 

literally  in  columns,  for  they  were  displayed  on  five  separate 
posts  or  columns,  set  at  each  station,  and  numbered  as  one, 
two,  three,  four,  and  five.  There  were  five  letters  on  each 
post,  and  on  the  right  and  left  hand  sides  respectively  of 
these  posts  or  tablets  were  two  close  fences,  some  ten  feet 
long,  and  about  as  high  as  a  man's  head.  At  each  station 
was  an  optical  instrument,  of  two  small  tubes  set  close 
together,  and  so  arranged  that,  while  with  an  eye  at  each 
tube  both  fences  at  the  communicating  station  could  be 
seen,  through  one  tube  only  the  right-hand  fence  and 
through  the  other  tube  only  the  left-hand  fence  at  that  sta- 
tion were  visible.  This  arrangement  of  the  tubes  was  ne- 
cessary,  because  at  night  the  fences  at  the  station  to  be 
viewed  were  invisible,  and  it  could  not  be  otherwise  deter- 
mined on  which  side  the  lights  were  shown.  The  five 
letter-posts,  the  fences,  the  tubes,  and  ten  torches,  completed 
the  apparatus.  It  was  of  course  to  be  used  from  rived  posi- 
tions only.  It  was  suggested  to  use  the  plan  for  night- 
signals,  and  it  does  not.  appear  that  it  was  considered  as 
applicable  to  day-signals. 

Messages  were  sent  in  this  manner:  The  torches  were 
lighted  and  hidden  behind  the  fences.  Then,  to  indicate 
the  number  of  any  letter-post  or  column,  a  corresponding 
number  of  torches  were  shown  above  the  left-hand  fence  at 
the  sending-station  ;  while  to  designate  any  letter  on  that 
post,  a  number  of  torches,  corresponding  to  the  number  of 
that  letter  as  numbered  on  the  post,  were  shown  above  the 
right-hand  fence.  These  torches,  as  seen  through  the  view- 
ins  tubes,  were  distinguishable  as  shown  on  the  risrht  or  on 
the  left,  and  were  so  recognized  at  the  receiving-station. 
For  instance  :  to  indicate  the  letter  J,  that  is,  on  the  second 
column,  the  fifth  letter,  two  torches  were  shown  above  the 
left,  and  then  live  above  the  right  hand  fence.  For  the 
letter  K,  third  column,  first  letter,  there  were  shown  three 
torches  on  the  left,  and  one  on  the  right.      For  the  letter  C, 


392  MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS. 

first  column  and  third  letter,  one  torch  on  the  left  and  three 
on  the  right ;  and  so  on. 

With  the  skill  of  practice,  letters  were  telegraphed  after 
this  plan  with  a  good  deal  of  rapidity.  "With  a  sufficient 
number  of  men  on  duty,  the  letters  were  shown  as  fast  as 
they  could  be  recognized.  This  device,  appearing  under 
different  modifications,  seems  to  have  been  used  among  all 
the  armies  of  the  East,  and  its  use  came  down  to  times  com- 
paratively late.  The  principles  of  this  plan  enter  the  per- 
fected systems  of  telegraphing  of  the  present  day. 

For  illustration  : — ■ 

The  written  record  of  the  letters  arranged  in  tables,  after 
the  plan  of  Polybius,  would  be  something  as  follows :  "  A" 
is  "  first  column,  first  letter ;"  or  briefly,  "  A"  is  "  first-first," 
or  "one-one,"  or  "1—1,"  or  "11."  So  of  the  letter  B: 
"B"  is  "  first  column,  second  letter,"  or  "first-second,"  or 
"  one-two,"  or  "  1—2,"  or  "  12."  The  letter  "  G"  is  "  second 
column,  second  letter,"  or  "  second-second,"  or  "  2 — 2," 
or  "  22."  "  X"  is  "  third-fourth,"  or  "  34."  "  Y"  is  "  fifth- 
fourth,"  or  "  54  ;"  and  so  on.  The  letters  could  thus  be  con- 
densedly  written  in  numerals.  It  would  have  to  be  borne 
in  mind  that  the  left-hand  figure  of  the  numerals  indicated 
torches  to  be  shown  on  the  left,  while  the  right-hand  figure 
of  the  same  numeral  indicated  torches  to  be  shown  on  the 
right.  Now  the  record  of  the  torches  seen  at  night,  repre- 
senting these  numerals,  standing  for  letters,  would  be  in- 
tended to  show  how  many  units — for  each  torch  represents  a 
unit — were  signified  by  torches  seen  on  the  left,  and  how 
many  by  torches  seen  on  the  right.  So  "  A"  might  be  writ- 
ten, when  seen  signalled,  "A"  is  "1  on  the  left"  and  "1 
on  right,"  or  "11  ;"  or,  the  torches  shown  on  the  left  and  those 
shown  on  the  right  might  be  indicated  and  distinguished  by 
different  figures,  as  a  "  1"  to  stand  for  each  torch  shown  on 
the  left,  and  a  "  2"  to  stand  for  each  torch  shown  on  the 
right.     Then  the  record  of  "A"  would    be  "12:"  or,  in  a 


MANUAL   OF  SIGNALS.  393 

hasty  record,  any  other  marks  might  be  used  instead  of  1 
and  2;  as,  a  short   mark  for  each  torch  on  the  left,  and  a 

long  mark  for  each  torchon  the  r'mht.  These  nii<j;ht  be 
placed  upright,  as  "  i  |,"  or  horizontally  written,  as  a  dot  and 
a  dash,  ". — ,"  and  we  have  a  telegraphic  letter.  <>r,  the 
fact  that  a  certain  number  of  torches  had  been  shown  on  the 
left  and  a  certain  number  on  the  right,  miafht  he  indicated 
in  yet  other  ways,  as  by  marks  or  dots  placed  before  a  space 
for  the  torches  shown  on  the  left,  and-  dots  after  the  space 
for  those  shown  on  the  right.  So  the  letter  "  Bv  might  be 
shown  in  these  several  ways:  as  "  12,"  or  "  122,"  or  "  111," 
or  ".  — ".     The  letter  "C"  might   be  "  13,"  or  "  1222,"  or 

"  1  111,"  or  "...  .,"  or  "• — ."     The  letter  "II"  might 

be    "23,"     or    "11222,"    or    "11111,"     or    " ,"    or 

"We  arrive  thus  at  the  principles  of  the  telegraphic  char- 
acter. 

The  alphabetic  plan  of  Polybius  was  an  ingenious  inven- 
tion. The  systematic  application  of  the  principle  on  which 
the  letter-signals  are  devised,  to  general  uses  and  to  other 
modes,  seems  not  to  have  been  thought  of,  and  it  is  possible 
it  was  not  at  all  considered.  Each  signal  was  shown  as  a 
whole,  and  Polybius  complains  that  "  because  every  letter 
requires  a  double  signal,  a  great  number  of  torches  must  be 
employed." 

The  fact  exists,  however,  that  he  was  working  by  signals 
of  two  elements,  as  clearly  as  that  signals  are  made  in  that 
manner  to-day. 

In  the  wide  study  of  and  practice  with  these  signals,  tins 
must  have  become  generally  known  ;  and  it  seems  as  if 
glimmerings  of  the  knowledge  of  the  fact,  that  all  language 
could  be  represented  for  telegraphing  by  any  two  elements, 
can  be  traced  from  the  time  of  Polybius. 

The  principle  understood,  it  will  be  seen  how  the  plan 
might  be  applied,  showing  for  any  letter  one  torch  a  number 

17* 


394  MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS. 

of  times  on  the  left,  and  then  a  number  of  times  on  the  right 
screen,  instead  of  a  number  of  torches  together  on  the  left 

7  CI? 

and  on  the  right.  With  the  optical  instrument  described, 
these  signals  would  have  been  legible. 

Flags,  or  other  objects,  might  have  been  shown  by  flay- 
instead  of  the  torches,  or  a  single  flag  might  have  been 
shown  in  the  proper  places  a  proper  number  of  times,  instead 
of  the  single  torch  just  mentioned.  This  seems  not  to  have 
been  thought  of. 

We  can  easily  see  how  signals  might  have  been  made  by 
swinging  a  torch  into  view  on  the  left,  and  then  on  the 
right,  from  behind  the  screens.  This  mode  would  have  dif- 
fered from  combining  motion  with  signals,  for  the  purpose 
of  giving  that  great  visibility  which  motion  gives  to  flags 
or  lights :  for  the  whole  swings  would  not  have  been  visible, 
but  it  would  have  closely  approximated  that  mode. 

Field-signals  are  now  made  in  our  army  by  so  swinging 
a  torch  all  the  time  in  view  from  side  to  side. 

At  the  siege  of  Vienna,  John  Smith,  the  explorer  of  Vir- 
ginia, used  the  plan  of  Polybius  with  effect,  to  arrange  with 
the  besieged  forces  for  a  sortie,  he  having  leai'ned  it  from 
the  Turks,  it  is  said.  The  quaint  old  English  works  of  1650, 
or  thereabout,  tell  of  a  marvellous  device  by  which  those 
who  know  may  converse  so  far  as  white  can  be  known  from 
black.     This  is  evidently  a  code  of  two  elements. 

In  1812,  a  clergyman  of  England,  reviving  the  table  of 
Polybius,  and  giving  to  the  letters  the  same  enumeration, 
designated  the  number  of  the  column  by  one  torch,  brought 
the  proper  number  of  times  into  view  from  behind  a  screen  ; 
and  then,  after  a  slight  pause,  indicated  the  number  of  the 
letter  in  that  column  by  showing  the  torch  as  many  times 
as  made  the  letter-number.  Extending  the  plan,  he  used 
the  flashes  of  any  kind  of  light. 

Thus  to  make  A,  first  column,  first  letter,  or  "  1  1,"  one 
flash — a  pause — one  flash.     To  make  C,  first  column,  third 


MANUAL    OF   SIGNALS.  395 

letter,  or  "  1  3,"  a  flash — a  pause — three  flashes.  To  make 
G,  second  column,  second  letter,  or  "2  2,"  two  flashes — a 
pause — two  flashes;  and  so  on.  The  code  is  one  of  two  ele- 
ments; that  is,  flashes  before  the  pause,  ami  flashes  after 
the  pause. 

Of  course,  the  single  Iighl  of  any  light-house  can  be  flashed 
in  this  manner.  Messages  were  sent  by  this  gentleman  a 
distance  of  forty  miles. 

A  plan  of  flags  by  day  is  said  to  have  been  used,  but 
whether  in  motion  or  at  rest  there  is  no  information. 

At  a  later  day,  in  1829,  the  intermural  telegraph  of  Mr. 
Swain,  of  Philadelphia,  of  taps  and  scratches  on  a  wall,  is 
another  development  of  the  system  of  two  elements. 

finally,  the  transmission  of  signals  by  electricity,  the 
splendid  telegraph  of  to-day,  began  to  attract  attention, 
and  study  was  turned  to  provide  the  most  available  signals. 
Signals  of  two  elements,  traceable  thus  from  the  time  of  the 
ancients,  are  found  in  the  right  and  left  vibrations  of  the 
needle  in  the  code  of  Schilling,  whose  letters  are  written 
left-right,  or  I  r;  or  left-left-right,  or  1 1  r;  or  left-right-left, 
ovlrl;  or  left-right-left-right,  or  Irlr;  etc.  It  is  plain 
these  letters  maybe  written  one-two,  or  one-one-two,  or 
oue-two-one,  or  one-two-one-1  wo  ;   and  so  on. 

In  later  years,  this  code  of  signals,  modified  and  some- 
times so  changed  as  to  be  hardly  recognizable,  is  used  in  all 
the  signal  telegraphs  of  Europe.  When  signals  came  to  be 
traced  on  paper,  a  code  of  two  elements  was  written  by  dot 
and  line. 

In  the  time  of  Polybius,  and  through  most  of  the  Greek 
and  Roman  wars,  there  were  corps  of  signalists  or  telegraph- 
ers with  the  army.  These  were  known  as  Tupo^-urea.  The 
word  lias  been  translated  "fire-bearers;"  it  is  literally  "fire- 
movers,"  or  "fire-shakers,"  or,  perhaps,  "  lire-swingers,"  from 
Tiii,  fire;  tfeuw,  to  move,  to  shake.  In  the  history  of  the 
siege  of*  Agrigentum — a  town  from  which  though  perfectly 


396  MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS. 

invested,  the  commanding  officer  was  telegraphing  the  con- 
dition— the  narrative  is  given  :  "  But  Hannibal  (<Wirup<r£uo/xe- 
vou)  shaking  through  with  fire,  or  swinging  through  with 
fire,  and  sending  through  messages  continually  that  the 
people  could  not  stand  the  famine,"  etc.  How  this  was 
done  we  are  not  explicitly  told,  and  of  the  precise  meaning 
of  the  word  we  cannot  be  now  assured ;  but,  reading  the 
quotation,  we  seem  to  read  of  the  service  of  the  Signal  Corps 
of  our  army,  and  to  trace  the  working  of  the  torchmen  of 
to-day. 

We  can  thus  evolve  from  this  plan  the  principles  upon 
which  are  based  electric-signals,  the  flag-signals  of  the  Gen- 
eral Service  Code,  and  those  which  underlie  the  Homo- 
graphic  Codes  heretofore  illustrated. 

It  is  difficult  to  realize  that,  in  the  perfection  of  tele- 
graphs and  telegraphic  signals,  are  revived  almost  the  oldest 
devices  of  antiquity ;  that  the  fire-swingers  of  Polybius  and 
the  signalmen  of  our  army  practise  so  nearly  the  same  art, 
with  modes  so  closely  assimilated ;  that  the  electric  tele- 
grapher writes  his  signals  with  the  same  elements,  and 
perhaps  with  almost  the  same  characters,  with  which  the 
first  telegraphic  signals  of  which  there  is  record  were  noted. 

The  telegraphic  apparatus  of  early  days  were  not  often 
portable.  The  devices  show  ingenuity  of  invention,  but 
they  were  not  applied  by  practicable  rules.  The  use  of  the 
telescope  was  wanting,  and  the  art,  with  all  the  develop- 
ment given  it  in  armies,  did  not  attain  a  great  perfection. 

In  the  Dark  Ages,  the  art  of  telegraphing  seems  to  have 
been  lost  with  other  arts.  Few  knew  even  how  to  read  and 
Avrite,  and  the  rude  habits  of  the  time  required  no  perfect 
telegraphy. 

The  very  idea  seems  to  have  been  so  far  forgotten,  that 
the  introduction  of  semaphores,  which  came  with  a  much  re- 
vived civilization,  was  opposed  as  a  sin  against  the  Deity. 
The  introduction  of  electric  telegraphs  was  opposed  by  the 


MANUAL   OF    SIGNALS.  397 

ignorant ;  and  up  to  quite  recently,  it  has  been  held  singular, 
even  l>y  those  of  education  and  large  experience,  that  any 
man  should  be  able  to  talk  to  another  by  a  few  simple  signs 
as  far  as  he  could  be  visible. 

In  the  study  oi' thi'  subject  of  telegraphy,  there  are  every- 
where met  the  devices  by  which,  in  later  days,  the  end  was 
sought. 

In  naval  signalling,  we  read  of  strange  plans,  as  of  hoi-t- 
ing a  barrel  at  the  yard-arm  as  a  signal  tor  water,  or  a 
tablecloth  as  an  invitation  to  dinner.  Then  of  slow  im- 
provements :  attempts  to  build  semaphores  on  ships;  com- 
plicated arrangements  of  signal-flags  ;  but  with  gradual  im- 
provement, from  year  to  year,  until  we  reach  the  flag  dic- 
tionary of  to-day. 

In  telegraphy  on  land,  we  trace  again  from  the  days  of 
signals  by  fires  and  smokes  to  the  time  when  a  few  simple 
sions  were  given  by  the  commander's  flag  upon  the  field 
of  battle;  then  cumbrous  semaphores  worked  on  rude  plans; 
then  the  wonderfully  ingenious  plans  of  Chappe ;  then  the 
portable  semaphores  of  Popham,  and  the  efl'orts  to  repre- 
sent semaphores  by  men  holding  disks  in  their  hands;  and 
so  through  hundreds  of  devices,  ingenious,  but  without  sys- 
tematic application,  down  to  the  crowning  invention  of  the 
electric  telegraph. 

On  land  or  on  the  sea,  the  aim  of  inventors  in  general  has 
seemed  to  be  to  signify  the  numeral  digits  by  signals,  and 
then  to  designate  by  these  the  particular  messages  in  Codes 
of  Messages. 

In  contemplating  some  of  the  plans,  we  consider  with 
wonder  the  labor  to  attain  ends  which,  with  better  knowl- 
edge, are  reached  by  means  so  much  more  simple  and 
available. 

A  difficulty  seems  to  have  been  in  the  fact  that,  working 
without  systematized  rules,  each  signal  was  arbitrarily 
formed ;  and  in  almost  every  case,  the  effort  was  to  make 


398  MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS. 

all  signals  complete  of  themselves  and  permanent.  The 
plans  for  transient  signals,  or  signals  whose  parts  were  to  be 
made  in  succession,  and  by  certain  rules,  and  for  the  rapid 
verbal  telegraphing  now  demonstrated  to  be  practicable, 
and  with  so  little  trouble  as  to  hardly  require  tuition,  have 
been  of  more  recent  origin. 


The  signals  of  the  earlier  times  seem  to  have  had  a  rela- 
tion to  a  perfected  telegraphy  similar  to  that  which  spoken 
words  had  to  a  written  language.  The  elements  of  signals 
were  to  be  determined  by  study,  as  were  the  elements  of 
words,  before  general  plans  could  be  devised  by  which  to 
so  exhibit  them  as  to  convey  any  meanings  of  a  language. 

The  systematizing  of  signals  by  plans  in  which  each  pos- 
sible elementary  sign  is  first  arrived  at,  and  is  then  so  sym- 
bolized by  some  given  character  or  figure  that  these  may  be 
written,  and  mav  show  all  the  combinations  or  arrangements 
which  can  be  had,  using  any  of  the  elementary  signs,  is  to 
the  study  and  improvement  of  signals  what  the  invention  of 
written  language  was  to  that  of  words.  When  words  could 
be  considered  only  as  complicated  sounds,  of  which  there 
was  no  record,  or  but  an  arbitrary  one,  language  was  con- 
fused, and  imperfectly  learned  by  years  of  labor. 

The  invention  of  the  alphabet  made  the  study  easy,  and 
permitted  a  progress  else  impossible.  It  has  been  thus  with 
signals.  While  complicated  signals  were  arbitrarily  used  to 
express  ideas,  the  study  seemed  full  of  mystery  and  labor, 
and  few  wei-e  able  to  give  it  attention.  But  when  we  con- 
sider signals  as  made  up  of  simple  signs,  and  have  plain  rules 
by  which  to  write  these  down  and  put  them  together,  as 
letters  are  joined  to  make  up  words,  the  study  becomes  so 
easy  that  any  one  can  be  a  proficient;  and  the  science  can 
be  perfected  to  a  degree  before  impracticable. 


MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS.  399 


GENERAL  USE  OF  SIGXALS. 

There  have  long  been  dreams  of  a  Universal  Language, 
by  which  men  of  any  nation  might  converse;  and  the  idea 
has  occurred  to  many,  that  systems  of  signals  might  he  so 
planned  as  to  be  universally  applicable. 

The  subject  has  excited  no  general  attention,  because  it 
has  not  been  pressed  upon  the  notice  of  the  public.  The 
difficulties  to  be  encountered  have  originated  in  the  general 
ignorance  of  the  subject,  and  in  the  complications  of  the 
proposed  modes  of  signalling. 

Very  few  persons  without  experience,  have  any  idea  of 
the  ease  with  which  alphabetic  signals  are  made,  or  of  the 
remarkable  ranges  at  which  signals,  made  by  motions,  are 
visible  to  the  naked  eye.  They  still  less  realize  the  almost 
wonderful  gain  had  by  the  use  of  a  simple  pocket-telescope. 
Signalling  at  five  miles  is  held,  by  experienced  signalists, 
to  be  at  very  short  range. 

Messages  have  been  sent  ten  miles  with  a  pocket  handker- 
chief on  a  twelve-foot  rod.  With  the  flags  and  staff  in  use 
in  the  Signal  Corps  of  the  Army,  communication  is  said  to 
have  been  had  at  twenty-five  miles  distance;  and  detached 
words  are  reported  to  have  been  read  at  a  distance  of  forty 
miles. 

Almost  any  person  who  can  read  and  write  well  can  learn, 
with  a  few  hours'  study,  to  converse  by  signals  as  far  as  he 
can  be  seen  with  a  telescope.  He  can  make  himself  under- 
stood using  a  cane  ami  a  handkerchief,  or  a  rough  pole  and 
a  piece  of  any  cloth,  as  a  coat  or  a  shirt,  or  sometimes  his 
arms  only,  at  distances  of  five  or  six  miles.  He  can  com- 
municate easily  at  a  distance  of  one  or  two  miles  when  no 
telescopes  are  used.  Preceding  illustrations  have  shown 
how  common  lanterns,  or  any  lights,  can  lie  used  at  night, 
and  how  it  is  almost  impossible  for  the  signalist  to  find  him- 


400  MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS. 

self,  in  any  of  the  chances  of  life,  without  such  things  as 
may  make  up  his  simple  apparatus. 

It  is  needed  only  that  some  alphabetic  code  should  be 
adopted  and  be  generally  known.  It  must  be  so  written 
out  and  explained  that  the  untutored  can  comprehend  it. 
The  principles  upon  which  it  is  founded  should  be  clearly 
stated. 

The  same  code  ought  to  be  used  everywhere,  by  nations 
of  the  same  language.  It  should  be,  if  possible,  committed 
to  memory.  It  should  be  taught  in  schools,  and  all  institu- 
tions of  learning.  It  is  as  easy  to  commit  to  memory,  and 
to  retain,  an  alphabet  in  which  the  letters  are  known  by 
numbers,  and  the  motions  for  them,  as  the  common  al- 
phabet, in  which  each  letter  is  known  by  its  name.  Chil- 
dren can  acquire  such  a  code  as  soon  as  they  have  learned 
to  read. 

Persons  of  mature  years  can  easily  devote  sufficient' time 
to  the  subject  to  comprehend  the  working  of  the  code  in 
case  of  necessity.  At  academies  and  colleges  the  practice 
of  the  code  could  be  made  a  part  of  the  course  of  instruc- 
tion ;  and  the  students  would  find  a  healthful  and  pleasant 
field-practice  in  an  art  which  will  give  them  a  new  power, 
and  in  learning  which  they  would  ii  cidentally  acquire  that 
practice  with  the  telescope  and  knowledge  of  its  uses  which 
opens  almost  a  new  world  of  view  to  the  possessor. 

To  be  able  to  thus  telegraph  at  will,  would  add  to  the 
pleasure  as  well  as  the  safety  of  the  individual. 

At  military  and  naval  academies,  where  all  manly  acquire- 
ments and  all  knowledge  that  can  add  to  our  powers  of 
offence  or  defence  are  expected  subjects  of  study,  this  art, 
on  the  acquisition  of  which  the  possession  of  a  fort,  or  of  a 
ship,  or  even  the  fate  of  a  battle  may  hang,  ought  to  be 
taught  as  of  course :  precisely  as  a  pupil  must  learn  the 
manual  of  the  musket. 

There  is  hardly  an  officer  who  has  seen  service  but  can 


MANUAL   OF  SIGNALS.  401 

remember  instances  at  which,  if  he  and  his  fellow-officers 

had  possessed  only  so  mncli  skill  as  follows  a  few  hours' 
practice,  it  might  have  contributed  to  the  success  of  an  ex- 
pedition or  an  engagement.  There  are  few  who  will  not 
admit  the  propriety  of  acquiring  the  information. 

The  commanders  and  officers  of  merchant  and  revenue 
vessels  have  frequent  occasions  for  such  communication. 
Surveyors  might  use  it  when  running  long  lines.  There 
are  no  circumstances  under  which  men  may  need  to  act  in 
concert,  but  in  which  this  practice  would  be  valuable. 

There  is  nothing  visionary  in  the  proposition  of  this  uni- 
versal knowledge.  Any  one  can  acquire  it.  The  applica- 
tions of  it  would  be  endless. 

How  many  instances  can  every  one  recall  in  hunting  or 
boating,  in  travel,  or  in  the  plays  of  childhood,  or  in  busi- 
ness, in  any  of  the  pursuits  of  peace  or  Avar,  when  the  power 
to  signal  a  message  a  few  miles,  or  a  mile,  or  even  a  few 
hundred  yards,  would  have  been  a  most  valuable  acquisi- 
tion !  Or  with  more  sad  recollection,  how  many  instances 
can  most  recall  where,  on  wrecked  ships,  or  at  fires,  or  in 
the  thousand  occurrences  of  peril  to  life,  their  fellow-men 
have  perished,  helpless,  for  want  of  a  few  words  of  informa- 
tion, which  might  have  been  signalled  to  them ! 

There  are  those  who,  remembering  these  facts,  would  ac- 
complish themselves  as  signalists,  as  a  duty,  for  the  sake  of 
their  own  safety,  or  that  some  day  they  might  aid  to  save 
others. 

The  modes  of  diffusing  the  information  are  easy. 

Codes  can  be  written  with  intelligible  instructions,  and 
so  plainly,  that  by  using  them  almost  any  one  can  make; 
and  read  signals,  and  this  to  the  extent  of  sending  any 
brief  message  they  choose,  with  less  than  an  hour's  prac- 
tice. 

These  Codes,  with  all  the  instructions,  can  be  printed  on 
a  piece  of  card-board  not  much  larger  than  the  hand.     If 


402 


MANUAL  OF  SIGNALS. 


GENERAL,  SERVICE  CODE. 


A  flag  is  held  directly  above  the  head. 

To  make  letters,  swing  it  to  the  ground,  on  the  right  and  left  sides,  as  follows  : 


Letter'.  Molion$. 

A left,  left 

B left  right,  right  left. 

0 right,  left,  right. 

D. 


To  make 
Ifumber*. 

22 

2112 

121 


.left,  left,  left 222 


E right,  left  12 

F left,  left,  left,  right 2221 

G left,  left,  right,  right 2211 

H right,  left,  left 122 

I right 1 

J right,  right,  left,  left 1122 

K ..left,  right,  left,  right 2i21 

L left,  left,  right 821 

M right,  left,  left,  right 1221 

N right,  right 11 


Letteri. 

O 

P. 


To  make 

3Ioti<ms.  Numbers. 

.left,  right 21 

.right,  left,  right,  left 1212 

1211 


Q right,  left,  right,  right. 


R left,  right,  right 211 

S left,  right,  left 212 

T left 2 

TJ. 7.7.'. "right,"  "right,  left. '.'.'.'. '.'.'.7.7.!    112 

V right,  left,  left,  left 1222 

W right,  right,  left,  right 1121 

X left,  right,  left,  left 2122 

Y right,  right,  right HI 

Z left,  left,  left,  left 2222 

& right,  right,  right,  right 1111 


EXPLANATION. 

The  numbers  for  each  letter  are  made  by  motions. 

The  whole  number  opposite  each  letter  stands  for  that  letter. 

There  are  one  position  and  two  signal-motions.  Any  letter  can  be  made  by  these  two 
n  o  inns. 

Fi-ovide  a  flag  of  a  piece  of  any  cloth,  with  a  pole  about  ten  feet  long— a  slate  and  pen- 
cil to  write  the  signals — a  spy-glass,  or  a  marine  glass. 

To  prepare  a  message  :  write  the  words  on  a  slate.  Then  write  for  each  letter  either 
the  numbers  which  stand  tor  it.  or  the  "motion-words:1'  as.  for  A  either  ("22"),  or 
("  left,  left");  for  B  either  ("2112"),  or  ("  left  right,  right  left"),  inclosing  each  in  brack- 
ets.    When  the  message  is  thus  written  out — ■ 

TO  SEND  A  MESSAGE. 

Face  exactly  towards  the  person  to  whom  you  are  sending. 

Hold  the  flag  directly  above  the  head.     This  position  is  called  the  "  First  Position." 

Make  the  "  Attention  Signal." 

Wait  until  this  is  answered  by  the  other  party  with  the  "Assent  Signal." 

Then  signal  the  message  letter  by  letter,  reading  the  "Motion-words"  for  each  from  the 
slate,  or  having  them  read  by  another  person. 

To  make  motion  one,  or  "  1,"  the  flag  is  waved  to  the  ground  to  the  right,  and  brought 
back  to  the  first  position.  To  make  "motion  two,"  or  "2,"  the  flag  is  waved  to  the 
ground  to  the  left,  and  brought  back  to  the  first  position.  Thus  to  make  "  A,"  or  "22," 
or  "  left-left,"  the  flag  is  waved  twice  to  the  ground  to  the  left,  and  is  then  brought  to 
the  first  position.  To  make  "B,"  or  "2112,"  or  "  left-right-right-left,"  the  flag  is  waved 
once  to  the  left,  twice  to  the  right,  and  once  to  the  left— that  is  "  left  right,  right  left." 
To  make  "  222."  the  flag  is  waved  "  left,  left,  left."     And  so  for  the  Alphabet. 

The  motions  for  any  letter  are  made  without  any  stop  between  them. 

At  the  end  of  each  letter  pause  two  seconds,  holding  the  flag  above  the  head. 

At  the  end  of  each  word  wave  the  flag  to  the  ground  directly  in  front,  and  bring  it  back 
to  the  first  position. 

At  the  end  of  each  sentence  wave  the  flag  twice  to  the  front,  and  bring  it  back  to  the 
first  position. 

At  the  end  of  a  message  wave  the  flag  three  times  to  the  front,  and  lower  the  flag. 

The  "  Attention  Signal."  to  call  attention,  is  made  by  waving  the  flag  from  side  to  side 
over  the  head  and  to  the  ground  continually. 

The  "  Assent  Signal,"  meaning  "  we  see  you,  and  are  ready  for  your  message,"  is  made 
by  waving  the  flag  to  the  left,  two  waves  at  a  time,  three  times  (left  left — left  left— left 
left). 

The  "  Repeat  Signal,"  meaning  "message  not  understood  :  repeat  it"— the  flag  is  waved 
thus  :  (right,    left,  right— right,    left,  right— right,  left,  right.) 

TO  RECEIVE  A  MESSAGE. 

The  telescope  or  other  glass  must  be  at  rest,  and  still.  The  Signal  Motions,  viewed 
through  the  glass,  will  appear,  the  "  one  motions"  toward  the  left  side  of  the  field  of  view 
— the  "  two  motions"  towards  the  right  side  of  the  field  of  view.  They  ate  called  off  as 
"  one"  or  ''two"  as  they  are  seen  made,  the  numbers  of  each  letter  together  if  possible, 
and  are  written  upon  the  slate.  Thus  A  would  be  called  "two,  two,"  and  written  (22)  IJ 
is  "two  one,  one  two,"  and  is  written  "  2112,"  etc.  A  dash  at  the  end  ot  each  word — two 
dashes  at  the  end  of  each  sentence.    The  letters  may  be  interpreted  by  reference  to  the  card. 


Messages  may  be  sent  without  apparatus  by  swinging  a  handkerchief,  held  in  the  hand, 
or  by  swinging  the  right  arm  for  one,  and  the  left  for  two,  following  the  rules. 


MANUAL   OF  SIGNALS.  403 

the  instructions  are  very  full,  the  card  might  be  six  inches 
square. 

The  General  Service  Code  of  two  elements,  and  the  Gen- 
eral Service  nomographic  Code,  printed  upon  cards,  as 
here  illustrated,  afford  examples  of  such  codes. 

The  alphabet  may  be  printed  as  in  these  instances  in 
columns,  or  in  a  circle  on  a  disk.  The  object  of  the  arrange- 
ment is  to  bring  each  letter  and  its  signal-number  closely 
together,  that  any  letter  and  its  signal  may  be  seen  at  a 
glance. 

The  Codes  may  be  written  more  in  full,  and  with  fuller 
explanations. 

If  the  reader  can  comprehend  these  rules,  and  will  prac- 
tise a  few  moments  with  a  companion,  he  will  surprise  him- 
self by  sending  messages  correctly,  After  this,  he  need  only 
practise  with  the  flags,  and  with  the  telescope  in  the  open 
air,  to  make  himself  skilful.  It  is  very  probable  that  the 
knowledge  he  can  gain  will  be  sufficient  to  enable  him  to 
slowly  signal,  or  to  read  a  message  at  any  time. 

A  person  once  thoroughly  practised  as  a  signalist  can 
thereafter  send  and  receive  by  any  code  that  may  be  before 
him. 

The  card  form  is  useful  for  the  reason  that  it  keeps  before 
the  signalist,  and  in  compendious  form,  not  only  the  signal- 
motions  and  the  numbers  for  each  alphabetic  letter,  but  the 
general  rules  for  their  transmission.  With  a  little  practice, 
it  will  be  found  that  the  Signal  Alphabet  is  in  this  way 
easily  committed  to  memory,  and  thenceforth  reference  to 
the  card  will  not  be  necessary. 

It  has  been  endeavored  to  draw  this  card  code  with  in- 
structions so  plain  that  no  person,  however  unskilled  as  a 
signalist,  need  fail  to  comprehend  them;  or,  if  by  chance 
they  should  appear  complicated  to  any,  the  briefest  instruc- 
tion from  a  practical  signalist  may  remove  the  apparent 
difficulty. 


4C4 


MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS. 


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MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS.  405 

The  General  Service  Homographic  Code,  or  any  of  the 
codes  described  in  this  manual,  can  be  eondensedly  printed 
in  this  manner.  The  General  Service  (ode  for  the  Army 
and  Navy  here  printed  is  a  further  illustration. 

This  card,  intended  especially  for  use  of  officers  and  those 
■who  have  acquired  some  skill,  may  be  perhaps  too  much 
condensed  for  general  use.  It  may  be  earned  in  the  pocket 
for  reference.  Upon  it  are  condensed  the  Rules  and  Alpha- 
bets for  both  Day  and  Night  Signals,  and  by  both  the  Gen- 
eral Service  Code  of  two  elements,  and  the  General  Service 
Homographic  Code  of  ten  elements.  The  numerals  stand- 
ing for  the  letters  are  in  the  columns  opposite  the  letters 
they  represent.  The  numerals  in  the  first  column  are  to  be 
made  by  position-signals.  The  numerals  in  the  second 
column  are  to  be  made  by  motion-signals. 

For  the  Homographic  Code  it  will  require  but  few  rules 
and  very  little  practice  to  fix  in  memory  the  ten  motions. 
They  are  pictured  upon  the  card  for  reference.  It  can  be 
learned  in  an  hour  to  make  together  by  twos — one  after  the 
other — the  motions  which  stand  for  each  letter,  and  to  suit 
the  plans  for  Day  or  Night  Signals. 

It  is  easier  still  to  remember  that  in  this  code  one  wave 
of  a  handkerchief  may  stand  for  "1,"  two  waves  for  "2," 
three  waves  for  "3,"  and  so  on  ;  and  to  learn  to  signal  the 
letters  in  this  way  :  Thus,  "  A,"  "  11,"  "  one-one"  (one  wave 
— a  pause — one  wave).  "  B,"  "  21"  "  two-one  {two  waves — 
a  pause — one  wave),  etc.  Longer  pauses  between  letters 
and  words.     Flashes  upon  the  same  plan  at  night. 

Both  codes  are  given  on  the  card,  because,  while  the 
signals  of  the  General  Service  Code  bv  fla^s  in  motion  are 
visible  at  vastly  greater  distances  than  those  of  the  Homo- 
graphic,  it  is  sometimes  easier  to  read  the  latter  when  a 
ship  is  rolling. 

"With  these  plans  understood  among  nations,  and  such  a 
signal  alphabet  furnished  to  all  national  and  merchant  ves- 


406  MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS. 

sels,  it  would  be  necessary  only  to  carry  the  dictionary  of 
the  languages  of  the  different  countries,  to  be  able  to  con- 
verse, in  its  own  language,  with  any  vessel  that  might  be 
encountered  at  sea,  or  with  any  post  or  port  on  shore.  As 
the  number  of  letters  in  the  different  languages  vary  some- 
what, a  dictionary,  which  would  be  a  very  complete  signal- 
book,  might  be  arranged  in  this  manner :  the  dictionary  to 
be  polyglott,  and  to  contain  the  synonymous  words  and 
terms  of  the  different  lano-uae;es  in  which  there  might  be 
occasion  to  converse  ;  in  the  forepart  of  the  dictionary  to  be 
printed  the  alphabets  of  the  different  languages,  each  having 
opposite  its  letters  the  signal-numbers  by  which  they  are 
represented.  Such  brief  instructions  as  are  above  given, 
to  be  printed  in  the  dictionary. 

It  will  be  evident  to  any  one  who  has  attentively  read 
these  notes,  that  a  vessel  thus  furnished,  and  carrying  the 
ordinary  equipment  of  signal-flags  and  torches,  need  never 
have  serious  difficulty  in  communicating  wants  or  wishes,  or 
in  conversing  with  similarly  provided  vessels  or  posts  of  its 
own  nation,  or  of  any  other  in  the  vicinity  of  which  it 
might  be. 

It  would  require  but  little  official  action  to  establish  the 
use  of  such  codes  upon  the  vessels  of  our  own  nation,  and 
but  little  international  action  to  render  the  usage  uni- 
versal. 

It  might  be  required  by  law  that  code  cards  be  carried  on 
every  merchant  or  other  vessel  in  the  service  of  the  United 
States.  Similar  codes  ought  to  be  furnished  to  every  com- 
mand, fort,  post,  life-saving  institution,  life-boat,  light-house, 
and  boat-station  in  the  nation.  At  boat-stations,  the  keeper 
ought  to  be  required  to  understand  the  code  well ;  and  upon 
vessels  and  at  posts  the  officers  should  be  practised  in  it. 

The  signal  or  cipher  disk  which  has  been  before  described 
may  be  arranged  for  the  especial  use  of  the  officers  of  the 
land  or  naval  service,  and  having  a  few  rules  printed  upon 


MANUAL  OF   SIGNALS.  407 

it,  will  furnish  not  only  a  secret  code  for  their  communica- 
tion, but  one  which  they  may  change  to  suit  emergencies. 

If  any  officer  reading  these  lines  will  reflect  thai  on  skill 
so  easily  acquired  may  on  any  day  rest,  not  only  his  own 
safety,  but  the  safety  of  hundreds  intrusted  to  his  care,  or 
even  the  success  or  failure  of  some  great  cause,  he  will  find 
in  this  sufficient  reason  to  acquire  it. 

There  is  a  kind  of  intelligence,  as  of  free-masonry,  among 
those  instructed  in  signalling  who  chance  t<>  see  anywhere 
the  motions  of  a  flag  waved  by  them  to  attract  attention, 
answered  in  the  distance  with  the  waves  "by  twos,"  which 
indicate  the  presence  of  a  signalist. 

The  general  plans  are  taught,  and  have  been  used  in  our 
Army  and  Navy;  it  is  easy  to  extend  them  to  the  vessels 
and  officers  of  the  Revenue  Service  and  the  Merchant  Ma- 
rine. They  can  be  practised  at  institutions  of  learning  on 
shore  and  on  school-ships  afloat.  Boards  of  Trade  and  Life- 
Saving  Associations  can  circulate  them.  The  first  lives  that 
may  be  saved  by  a  few  words  signalled  in  time,  will  more 
than  repay  the  necessary  effort. 

The  idea  is  no  longer  theoretical.  The  experience  of  the 
past  war  has  demonstrated  how  easily  signals  maybe  used, 
and  how  generally  they  might  be  taught. 


It  has  not  been  intended  to  convey  in  this  article  that 
practice  in  signalling  may  be  dispensed  with.  In  this,  as  in 
every  other  branch  of  duty,  the  practice  of  those  who  have 
important  offices  in  charge  ought  to  be  continual. 

But  it  has  been  endeavored  to  direct  attention  to  the 
great  advantages  to  follow  the  general  use  of  signalling  in 
and  out  of  the  service,  and  to  show  how  easy  it  may  be  to 
provide  for  such  and  so  much  of  practice,  that  any  one 
may  fit  himself  for  intelligent  communication  if  emergen ciea 
come. 


408  MANUAL   OF   SIGNALS. 

The  advantages  to  follow  the  services  of  a  well  trained 
signal-corps,  and  the  marvellous  skill  its  members  can  ac- 
quire in  all  the  branches  of  telegraphy,  have  never  been 
better  set  forth  than  in  the  following  quotation  from  the 
writings  of  the  soldier  to  whom  is  traced  the  origin  of  such 
organizations  more  than  two  thousand  years  ago  (Poly- 
bius'  General  History,  Book  x.,  chap,  ii.)  : 

"It  is  a  thing  well  known  that  opportunity,  which  has  so 
great  a  share  in  the  accomplishment  of  all  designs,  has  the 
greatest  in  those  that  belong  to  war.  Of  the  wonderful  in- 
ventions which  have  been  contrived  for  securing  opportu- 
nity, the  most  effectual  is  that  of  making  signals  by  the 
means  of  lighted  torches.  By  this  method,  things  which 
have  been  just  transacted,  and  others  at  the  very  time  in 
which  they  happen,  may  be  communicated  to  those  who 
are  concerned  to  know  them,  though  they  are  distant,  per- 
haps, three  or  four  days'  journey,  and  sometimes  even  many 
days  from  the  place,  and  the  requisite  assistance  be  received 
when  it  seems  scarcely  possible  to  expect  it.  In  former 
times,  the  manner  of  conveying  this  notice  was  too  simple, 
and  the  invention  upon  that  account  lost  much  of  its  ad- 
vantage, for  the  method  was  to  settle  by  concert  some  fixed 
and  determined  signals.  But  as  the  things  which  happen 
are  infinite,  the  greater  part  were  incapable  of  being  signi- 
fied by  such  a  method.  It  is  not  possible  that  signals 
should  be  concerted  to  give  notice  of  events  which  cannot 
be  foreseen.     *     *     *     * 

"  The  last  method  which  I  shall  mention  was  invented 
either  by  Cleoxenes  or  Democritua,  but  perfected  by  myself. 
This  method  is  proved,  and  capable  of  signifying  anything 
that  happens  with  the  greatest  accuracy.     *     *     *     * 

"  In  both  these  methods  it  is  principally  requisite  that  the 
persons  employed  should  first  be  exercised  by  practice — 
that  when  a  real  occasion  happens  the  signal  may  be  made 
and  answered  without  any  mistake. 


MANUAL  OF   SIGNALS.  400 

"With  respect  to  the  recurring  difficulties  of  the  method, 

it  would  be  easy  to  show  by  many  instances  that  there  is 
a  very  great  difference  in  the  same  things  when  they  arc 
first  proposed  and  when  they  are  afterward  rendered  famil- 
iar to  us  by  habit;  and  that  many  things  which  appear  in 
the  beginning  to  be  not  only  difficult,  but  absolutely  im- 
practicable, in  the  course  of  time,  and  by  continued  use,  are 
accomplished  with  the  greatest  ease.  Among  numberless 
examples,  the  act  of  reading  may  be  mentioned  as  one  of 
the  clearest  and  the  most  convincing  proofs  of  the  truth  of 
this  remark.  Take  a  man  who  has  never  learned  to  read 
that  is  otherwise  a  man  of  sense ;  set  a  child  before  him 
who  has  learned,  and  order- him  to  read  a  passage  in  a  book. 
It  is  certain  that  this  man  will  scarcely  be  able  to  persuade 
himself  that  the  child  as  he  reads  must  consider  distinctly, 
first,  the  form  of  all  the  letters ;  in  the  next  place,  their 
power ;  and  thirdly,  their  connection  one  with  another.  For 
each  of  these  things  requires  a  certain  portion  of  time. 
When  he  hears  him,  therefore,  read  four  or  five  lines  to- 
gether, without  hesitation  and  in  a  breath,  he  will  find  it 
very  difficult  to  believe  that  the  child  never  saw  the  book 
before.  But  if,  in  reading,  some  gesture  also  should  be 
added — if  the  child  should  attend  to  all  the  stops  and  ob- 
serve  all  the  breathings,  rough  and  smooth,  it  will  be  abso- 
lutely impossible  to  convince  the  man  that  this  is  true. 
From  hence,  therefoi-e,  we  may  learn  never  to  be  deterred 
from  any  useful  pursuit,  by  the  seeming  difficulties  that 
attend  it,  but  to  endeavor  rather  to  surmount  those  difficul- 
ties by  practice  and  by  habit.  It  is  habit  which  gives  to 
men  the  noblest  acquisitions,  even  those  which  are  upon 
many  occasions  the  principal  means  of  their  safety. 

"  With  respect  to  myself,  what  induced  me  to  enter  into 
a  discussion  of  this  kind  was  the  remark  that  was  made  in 
a  former  account  of  the  work,  that  in  the  present  age  the 
sciences  are  advanced   to  so  great  perfection  that  almost 


410  MANUAL    OF   SIGNALS. 

every  thing  is  capable  of  being  taught  by  method.  Such 
digressions,  therefore,  deserve  to  be  considered  as  some  of 
the  most  useful  parts  of  a  history  that  is  well  composed." 


In  time  of  war,  when  large  forces  are  assembled  together, 
the  following  rules  may  be  found  convenient  for  rapidly  dif- 
fusing the  knowledge  of  a  General  Service  Code  throughout 
a  command. 

It  is  desirable  that  the  commander  of  each  post,  vessel,  or 
separate  command,  be  so  far  informed  in  the  principles  of 
all  signals,  as  to  know  what  can  be  effected  by  them,  and  to 
be  able  of  himself  to  judge  when  the  duties  of  this  descrip- 
tion are  skilfully  and  efficiently  performed. 

Two  or  more  intelligent  officers  with  each  brigade,  on  each 
vessel,  or  at  each  post,  to  be  selected  by  the  commander, 
should  be  instructed  in  the  different  codes  and  modes  of 
signalling — this  instruction  to  be  earned  to  such  degree  that 
those  persons  may  in  their  turn  intelligently  instruct  others 
with  whom  they  may  be  ordered — a  certain  number  of 
seamen  or  enlisted  men  to  be  instructed  and  habitually 
practised  with  these  officers  in  the  manuals  of  signals. 

All  officers  should  have  such  knowledge  of  the  General 
Service  Code  as  to  enable  them  to  at  any  time  place  them- 
selves in  communication  with  their  commands,  or  with 
friendly  posts  or  vessels ;  but  the  officers  detailed  as  here 
described  should  be  designated  officially  as  signal-officers, 
and  it  should  be  a  part  of  their  duty  for  which  they  are 
responsible,  to  see  that  the  signal  duties  are  properly  dis- 
charged with  the  commands  to  which  they  are  attached. 

For  each  Geographical  District  and  for  each  Division  of 
a  Fleet  there  should  be  one  officer  designated  as  Chief  Sig- 
nal Officer  of  the  District  or  Division,  under  whose  general 
supervision  shall   be  the  signal    duties    rendered   by  the 


MANUAL  OF   SIGNALS.  411 

officers  -with  the  different  commands,  or  on  the  different 
vessels  in  the  District  or  Division;  these  officers  to  report 
to  superior  authority  the  condition  of  the  equipments  and 
the  modes  in  which  the  duties  are  discharged  with  each 
command  or  on  each  vessel  within  the  district. 

For  each  Army  or  Fleet,  there  should  be  one  Chief  Sig- 
nal Officer,  who  shall  have  general  charge  of  all  matters 
relating  to  signal  duty,  shall  see  that  the  proper  details  are 
made,  and  who  shall  report  from  time  to  time  on  the  con- 
dition of  the  service,  and  upon  the  efficiency  of  the  officers 
and  men  detailed. 

It  should  be  required  of  each  District  and  Division  Com- 
mander, that  in  all  inspections  for  reports  the  drill  in  signal 
duty  should  be  examined  and  reported  on  precisely  as  with 
any  other  drill  practised. 

To  insure  the  skill  on  which  on  any  day  the  successful 
management  of  a  command  or  of  a  ship  may  depend,  it  is 
suggested  that  commanding  officers  order  practice-drills  as 
a  portion  of  the  officers'  regular  duty,  at  certain  hours  on 
certain  days.  When  two  or  more  vessels  are  lying  to- 
gether, the  officers  are  to  be  required  to  practise  with  each 
other,'  during  these  drills,  from  ship  to  ship. 

Orders  from  the  Commanding  Generals  and  Admirals 
should  establish  the  use  of  the  General  Service  Codes 
throughout  their  commands;  and  similar  orders  should 
announce,  from  time  to  time,  changes  in  the  codes  of  the 
rules  by  which  they  are  to  be  used. 


THE  END. 


INDEX. 


Apparatus,  chronosemic  signal.  173. 

sign-making  lor  chronosemic  sig- 
nal-, 174. 
signal,  care  of,  222. 
time-keeping  for  chronosemic  sig- 
nals, 173. 
transportation  of.  226. 
Alphabet  of  three  elements.  96. 
four  "       111. 

"      elements,  for  flags  in 
motion.  Kit. 
five    elements,  116. 
six  "  127. 

6even      "  138. 

eight       "  140. 

nine        "  142. 

ten  "  144. 

Alphabetic  elementary  codes,  36. 
Arrangements  of  signals,  21. 
of  two  symbols,  68,  95. 
three      "        96. 
four       "       107,  111. 
five        "       116. 
six         "       127. 
Auxiliary  naval  symbols,  54. 

or  special  signals  (chronosemic), 
172. 
Bombs,  candle,  207. 
Candle  bombs,  207. 
Care  of  signal  apparatus,  222. 
Cavalry  raids.  359. 
Chronosemic  signals.  164. 

auxiliary  or  special  signals,  172. 
figure  symbols.  168. 
signals,  form  of  records  for,  177. 
preliminary  explanations  of,  166. 
M-nal  numbers.  170. 
"       apparatus.  173. 
"       record,  form  of,  177. 
"      signs   adapted   to   mist  or 

fog,  175. 
"      signs     adapted     to    open 
weather,  175. 
Chronosemic    signals— sign-making  ap- 
paratus, 174. 
special  sign-making  do.,  1T5. 
'■       time-keeper  for,  174. 
table  of  special  si^-ns.  172. 
time-keeping  apparatus,  173. 
Cipher,  modes  and  curiosities  of,  323. 
Cipher  route.  311. 


Cipher,  signalling  in,  236. 
Class  of  signals,  20. 

how  named,  21. 
Code,  commercial  (navjr),  51. 

designation  of,  21. 

signals  of  one  element.  66. 


two 

tl 

three 

ti 

96. 

four 

ic 

107. 

five 

ii 

116. 

six 

ti 

127. 

it 

IC 

instructions 

for  its  use.  128. 
Code,  General  Service,  68. 

"      instructions  for  its  use, 

70. 
"      tomographic,  the.  l-l  I. 
naval,  example  of,  47. 
of  ten  elements,  how  to   rapidly 

memorize,  161. 
signals,  147. 
signals  (navy),  49. 
Codes,  alphabetic  elementary,  36. 
examples  of,  43. 
of  message-signals,  42. 
Colored  signals  (navy),  52 
Colors,  signification  of,  62. 
Combinations  (telegraphic),  table  of,  197. 
Communication   by  signals  without   a 
preconcerted  code,  how  to  open, 
180. 
Complicating  signals,  by  two  elements, 

197. 
by  three  elements,  94. 
remarks  on,  272. 
Composition  fires.  216. 
Coston's  composition  telegraphic  night 

signals,  216. 
Cryptograms,  remarks  on,  276. 

illustrations  of.  279,  280,  2S1. 
Curiosities  of  cipher,  328. 
Day  signals— by  two  elements— horizon- 
tal motions,  81. 
motions  of  flags,  70. 
message,  how  to  send  a,  72. 
ordering  Bignals,  7 1. 
positions  and  motions,  70. 
recording  signals,  75, 
vertical  motions,  76. 
Day  signals— by  three  elements — flags  in 
motion. 


414 


INDEX. 


Day  Signals — motions  of  disks,  101. 

bv  four  elements— motions  of  flags, 

108. 
positions  of  disks,  110,  112. 
by  five  elements— positions    and 

motions,  117. 
by   six    elements — positions   and 

motions,  128. 
by  nine  elements — remarks  on,  142. 
Description  of   standard  signal  equip- 
ments, 189. 
Dictionary,  telegraphic  (navy),  example 

of,  50. 
Disks— by  three  elements— motions  of 
101. 
by  four         "  "      113. 

"  "    positions  of,  110. 

by  five  "    positions      and 

motions  of,  117. 
by  six  "  "  128. 

Disks,  signal,  description  of,  193. 
Disks,  signal— rules  and  regulations  for 
the  use  of— 1.  Explanation  of  the 
disk,  289:   2.  To  make   signals, 
289;    3.  The  adjustment  letter, 
289 ;   4.  To  send  a  message  in 
cipher,  290:  5.  To  change  the 
cipher  when  sending  a  message, 
290  ;  countersign  words.  293. 
Element,  one,  field  signals  by,    65. 
Element,  example  of  a  code  of,  66. 
Elementary  alphabetic  codes,    36. 
Elements,  two,  field  signals  by,  67. 
three,      "  "    96. 

four,         "  "  107. 

five  "  "  116. 

six  "  "  127. 

seven       "  "  138. 

eight       "  "  140. 

nine        "  "  142. 

ten  "  "  144. 

three,  alphabet  of.    96. 
four,  "        "'  111. 

"     for  flags  in  motion,  103. 
Elements,  five,  alphabet  of,  116. 
six  "         "    127. 

seven  "  "  138. 
eight  "  "  140. 
nine  "  "  142. 
ten  "        "    144. 

Enciphering   certain  words  only  of  a 

message.  298. 
Equation  of  combinations,  the,  25. 

permutations,  21. 
Establishing  field  stations,  remarks  on, 
243. 
signal  stations,  remarks  on,  265. 
Examples  of  codes,  43. 

Navy  repeaters,  54. 
Field  signals,  by  one  element,  65. 
two  "  66. 
three  "  96. 
four  "  107. 
five  "  116. 
six  "      127. 

seven     "      138. 
eight      "      140. 


Field  signals,  by  nine  elements,  142. 
ten         "  144. 

eleven    "  162. 

Field    stations,  remarks    on  selecting, 
establishing,  and  working,  243. 
Figure  symbols  (navy),  description  of,  52. 

chronosemic  signals,  164. 
Fires,  composition,  description  of,  216. 
Flags — by  three  elements — in  motion.OS. 
four         "  "  108. 

Flags,  on  halyards,  198. 
in  motion,  200. 
signal,  description  of,  108. 
"        sizes  of,  201. 
Flashes  and  puffs,  how  to  make,  209. 
signals,  by  two  elements,  88. 
"  three        "     104. 

"  five  "     120. 

"  six  "     133. 

ten  "     156. 

Flying  or  field  telegraph,  336. 
Form  of  chronosemic  signal  records,  177. 
Forms,  significations  by,  63. 
General  applications  of  signals,  56, 114. 
instructions  concerning  navy  sig- 
nals. 55. 
General  Service  Code,  illustration  of,  68. 

instructions  for  using,  70. 
General  Service  Homographic  Code,  the, 

144. 
General  Service  of  the  Signal  Corps,  347. 

use  of  signals,  399. 
Glasses,  scale,  description  of,  235. 
Halyards,  flags  on,  198. 
Homographic  Code,  144. 
night  signals,  149. 
signals,  how  to  return  or  repeat, 

150. 
signals,  application  to  code  of  ten 

elements,  154. 
signals,     application    to    signal- 
books,  remarks  on,  151. 
signals,  orders  in,  how  to   give, 

152. 
signals,  recording  of,  153. 
Horizontal  motions — by  two  elements- 
day  signals,  81. 
night        "        85. 
Information,  reports  from,  375. 
Instruction  in  signalling,  remarks  on, 

239. 
Instructions,  General  (navy  signals),  55. 
Instructions  for  using  General  service 
Code  — by  two  elements — with 
flags,  70. 
three  elements — with  flags,  97. 
six  "  with  disks,  128. 

Lanterns,  description  of,  203. 
Length  of  staffs,  what  should  be  the,  201. 
Lights,  signal,  how  to  use,  222. 
Location  of^stations,  remarks  on,  255. 
Mapping,  370. 
Maps  and  sketches  from  information, 

372. 
Matches,  instructions  concerning,  211. 
Message,   how   to   send   a,  by  two  ele- 
ments, 72. 


INDEX. 


415 


Message,  to  encipher  certain  words  only 

of,  398. 
Message  signals,  code  of,  42. 

description  of,  222. 
Messages  by  messengers,  07.". 
Messengers,  messages  by,  875. 
Methods  of  signalizing  signal  numbers 

(navy),  ."-j. 
Modes  and  curiosities  of  cipher.  823. 
Motion,  flat:*  in.  remarks  on,  200. 
Motion-  as  signals,  explanation  of.  15. 
Motions  of  disks  by  three  elements,  101. 
"  five         ••  117. 

six  "  128. 

Motions  of  flags  (day  signals'),  by  two 
elements,  70. 
horizontal  "  "  81. 

vertical  '«  "  76. 

Motions  of  flags—  horizontal  (night  sig- 
nals* by  two  elements,  8o. 
vertical  "         "  "        83. 

of  flags  (day  signals)  by  three  ele- 
ments, 98. 
"  "  by  four  "  10S. 

Motions,  signification  by.  59. 
Naval  Code,  example  of^  47. 

codes  of  the  U.  S.,  description  of, 
49. 
Navy  auxiliary  symbols.  54. 
colored  signals,  52. 
general   instructions  concerning, 

55. 
figure  symbols.  52. 
repeaters,  54. 

"  examples  of,  54. 

Navy  signals,  code  of.  50. 

telegraphic  dictionarv.  50. 
U.  S..  signal  system  of  the,  49. 
Night  signals  (with  equipments)  by  two 

elements.  81. 
Night  signals  by  horizontal  motion-.  85. 
vertical  "  83. 

(with  lanterns),  bv  three  "  103. 
(with  eqpts),  by  four  "  111. 
(with  diskM.         ••  "        114. 

(with  lights),  byfive         "        lift, 
(with  lanterns i.  by  six       "        132. 
Night  signals,  bv  nine  efements,  remarks 
on.  142. 
homographic.  149. 
Numbers,   methods  of   symbolizing  in 
navy.  50. 
signal  (navy)  description  of,  52. 
example  of.  95.  127. 

(cbronosemic),  lti4. 
Observation  and  reconnoissance,  360. 
Occoltations,  signal,  in-  two  elements.  90. 
by  three     "        lot 
bv  five        "        120. 
bv  six         "        13.3. 
by  ten         "        150. 
Odors,  significations  by,  02. 
Ordering  (tomographic  Bignals,  explana- 
tion of.  152. 
signals,  explanation  of.  74. 
Origin  ami  general  uses  of  signals,  3S2. 
Permutations,  equations  of.  22. 


Permutations— of   signals,   explanation 
of.  21, 

rules  for.  21. 
table  of  the.  25. 

Polybius,  the  system  of.  122. 

Position  of  signalmen,  explanation  of. 

210. 
Positions    and    motions    (by    two    cle- 
ments).  70. 

of  disks  (bv  four  elements).  112. 
(by  live.  ••         ).  117. 

(by  six  "         ).  128. 

Positions,  significations  bv.  0:). 

PufiB  and  (lashes,  how  to  make,  209. 
Raids,  cavalry.  369. 
Reconnoissance  and  observation.  3f>0. 
Record  (cbronosemic  signals)  form  of, 

177. 
Recording  nomographic  signals,  152. 

Bignals  by  two  elements.  75. 
Records  (chronosemic  signals),  form  of, 

177. 
Repeaters  (navy),  description  of,  53. 

example  of.  51. 
Repeating  homographic  signals,  instru- 
ments lor.  150. 
stations,  remarks  on,  208. 
Reports.  373. 

from  information.  375. 
transmission  of.  3S0. 
Returning    or   repeating   bomo<rraphic 

Bignals,  instructions  lor.  150. 
Rockets  for  signals,  use  of,  211. 

firing,  instructions  for.  215. 
Route  cipher.  311. 
Rules   of  arrangements  as   applied  to 

Bignals,  21.  35. 
Rules  of  combinations  as  applied  to  si"- 

tials.  21. 
Rules  of  permutations  as  applied  to  sig- 
nals. 21,35. 
and  explanations  for  use  of  signal 
disks,  2x1. 
Scale  L'las-es.  description  of.  235. 
Selecting  stations  in  the  field,  remarks 

011.  243. 
Semaphore  telegraphic  (universal),  195. 
Semaphores,  description  of.  193. 

field,  how  to  use  lor  signals,  155. 
Service   Code,   General,  illustration  of, 

08. 
Sign-making    apparatus    (chronosemic 

signals).  175. 
Signal  apparatus,  instructions  for  (are 
of,  222. 
disks,  description  of,  193. 
Signal  Corps,  general  service  of  the.  347. 
Signal  disks— rules  and  regulations  for 
the  use  of — 1.  Explanation   of 
the  disk.  289:  2.  To  make  sig- 
nals,   289;    3.   The  adjustment 
letter.  289;    I.  To    -end  a   mes- 
sage in  cipher,  290:  5.  To  change 
the  cipher  when  sending  a  mes- 
sage,  2:«i;    countersign    words, 

2'.'::. 

Signal  lights,  how  to  use.  222 


41G 


INDEX. 


Signal  men,  positions  of,  246. 

numbers  (navy),  method  of  sym- 
bolizing, 52. 
"  "      description  of,  54. 

stations,  how  to  establish,  205. 
Signals,  arrangements  of,  21. 
Signals    by  occupations    (by    two    ele- 
ments), 90. 
(bv  three  elements),  104. 
(by  five  "       ),  120. 

( by  six  "        ),  133. 

(by  ten  "       ),  156. 

Signals  by  flashes  (by  two  elements),  SS. 
(by  three  "  ),  104. 
(by  fonr  "        ),  120. 

(by  five  "       ),  121. 

(by  six  "       ),  133. 

(by  ten  "        ),  156. 

Signals  by  sound  (by  two  elements),  91. 
(by  three  "  ),  105. 
(by  five  "       J,  181. 

(by  six  "        ),  134. 

Signals  by  vertical  motions,  remarks  on, 

76,  83. 
Signals  (chronosemic),  exposition  of,  164. 
apparatus.  173. 
auxiliary  or  special,  172. 
figure  symbols.  164. 
form  of  records  for.  177. 
preliminary   explanations   about, 

166. 
numbers.  170. 
record,  form  of,  177. 
signs  adapted  to  mist  or  fog,  175. 
"         •'  open  weather,  175. 

sign-making  apparatus,  174. 
special  sign-making  "     175. 
•l        time-keeper,  for,  174. 
table  of  special  signs.  172. 
time-keeping  apparatus.  173. 
Signals,  classes  of,  remarks  on,  20,  95. 
Signals,  code  (bv  three  elements),    96. 
(by  four  "       ),  108. 

(by  five  "       ),  116. 

(by  six  "       ),  127. 

Signals,  code  of,  remarks  on,  21. 
"  Navy,  51. 

combinations  of,  remarks  on,  162. 
code,  illustration  of,  147. 
complicating  (by  two  elements), 

197. 
(by  three      "  ),  94. 
"  remarks  on.  272. 

Signals,  day  (bv  two  elements),  70,  76.  81. 
(by  three     "       ),  98.  101. 
(bv  four        "        ).  108,  111. 
(by  five       "       ).  117. 
(by  six         "       ),  12a. 
(by  nine       "        ),  142. 
Signals,  explanations  of,  15. 

field  (by  one  element).    65. 


(by  two 

), 

66. 

(by  three     ' 

'        • 

96. 

i by  lour      ' 

. 

107. 

(by  five        "      "). 

116. 

(by  six 

1      )• 

126. 

(by  nine 

), 

112. 

Signals,  field  (by  ten  elements).  144. 
"     (by  eleven    "        ).  162. 
Signals,  from  one  to  nine  elements,  and 
from  one  to  nine  places,  table  of 
references  for.  32. 
Signals,  general  applications  pertaining 
to,  56. 
nomographic,  149. 

••    application  to  code  of  ten 
elements.  154. 
"     signal  books,  re- 
marks on,  151. 
homographic,  how  to  return  or  re- 
peat. 150. 
"    orders  in,  how  to  give.  152. 
"    recording,  remarks  on.  1":). 
Signals,  message  codes  of.  42. 

"         description  of.  222. 
naval,  colored,  description  of.  52. 
night  (by  two  elements),  with 

eqpts.  81,  83,  85. 
"      (bv  three"),    "  99. 

"      (    li  "),  with  lanterns, 

103. 
"  (bvfour  "),with eqpts.  108. 
"      (    "  "),  with  disks,  110. 

"      (by  five     '■).  with  li-hts. 114. 
"      (by  six      "),with    lanterns, 

132. 
Signals,    night.    Coston's    composition 

telegraphic,  description  of.  216. 
Signals,  origin  and  general  uses  of,  382. 

general  use  of,  399. 
Signals,  permutations  of,  21. 
recording  of,  17. 
rockets  for  the  use  of.  211. 
systems  of  (navy),  description  of, 

49. 
transient,  remarks  pertaining  to, 
87. 
Signals,  with  field  semaphores,  descrip- 
tion of,  155. 
without  a  preconcerted  code,  how 
to  open,  180. 
Signalling,  instruction  in,  239. 

in  cipher,  remarks  on,  286. 
Significations  by  colors,  62. 
forms,  63. 
motions,  59. 
odors.  62. 
positions,  58. 

of  forms,  63. 
sounds,  60. 
taste,  61. 
touch,  61. 
Size  of  flags,  explanation  of,  201. 
Sketches  and  maps  from  information, 

372. 
Sound,  as  signals^. remarks  on.  15. 
signals  (by  two  elements),    91. 
(bv  three      "        ),  105. 
"       (bvfive         "        ).  121. 
"       (by  six  "        ),  134. 

Sound,  significations  by,  60. 
Special  or  auxiliary  (chronosemic)  sig- 
nals. 172. 
Stall's,  length  of.  what  should  be.  201. 


INDEX. 


417 


Stations  in    the  field,    how  to    select, 

establish,  and  work,  248. 

how  in  locate,  365. 

repeating,  remarks  on,  SOS. 

signal,  how  to  establish,  965. 

Symbols,  arrangement  of.  68,  95,  n»i.  107, 

111,  116,  127,  138,  140,  If',  144. 
Symbols  (navy),  auxiliary.  54. 
System  ofPolybius,  the,  122. 

figure  (chronoaemic  signals),  lf>8. 
Table  of  reference  for  all  signals  from 
one  to  nine  elements,  and  from 
one  to  nine  places,  34. 
of  telegraphic  signs  or  combina- 
tions, in;. 

Taste,  significations  by,  61. 

Telegraphic  combinations,  table  of.  197. 

Telegraphic  composition  nighl  (Cos- 
ton's)  signals,  description  of,  216. 
(naval)  dictionary,  illustration  of, 
50. 

18* 


Telegraphic  siirns,  table  of,  107. 
Telegraph,  flying  or  field,  386. 
Telegraphy,  remarks  on,  i.">. 
Telescopes  and  their  uses,  remarks  on, 

228. 
Time-keeping  apparatus  for  chronosemic 

signals,  explanation  of,  n  [. 
To  open  a  communication    by    signals 

without    a   preconcerted    code, 

how,  180. 
To  rapidly  memorize  a  code  of  ten  ele- 
ments, how,  161. 
Torches,  description  of.  204. 
Touch,  significations  by.  61. 
Transient  signals,  remarks  on.  NT. 
Transmission  of  reports.  880 
Transportation    of   apparatus,   remarks 

mi.  226. 
Vertical  motions,  explanation  of,  7ti.  S3. 
Working  stations  on  the  field,  remarks 

on,  -,»i:;,  249. 


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